[Federal Register: November 3, 1999 (Volume 64, Number 212)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Page 60017-60065]
From the Federal Register Online via GPO Access [wais.access.gpo.gov]
[DOCID:fr03no99-69]
[[pp. 60017-60065]] Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health
Information
[[Continued from page 60016]]
[[Page 60017]]
patient demand for access, amendment, and correction of medical
records.
Our cost calculations assume that persons who request an
opportunity to amend or correct their record have already obtained a
copy of their medical record. Therefore, the administrative cost of
amending and correcting the patient's record is completely separate
from inspection and copying costs. In this section we have only
addressed the cost of disputing a factual statement within the patient
record, and do not calculate the cost of appeals or third party review.
Administrative review of factual statements contained within a
patient's record may be expensive. Most errors may be of a nature that
a clerk or nurse can correct (e.g., the date of a procedure is
incorrect) but some may require physician review. Thus, we have
estimated that the average cost of amending and correcting a patient
record may be $75 per instance.
If amendment and correction requests are associated with two-thirds
of requests for inspection and copying, and the cost of correcting (or
noting the patient's request for correction) is $75, the total cost of
amending and correcting patient records will be $407 million annually,
or $2 billion over five years. Comments on our estimate of amendment
and correction costs would be helpful, particularly if they speak to
current amendment and correction costs or frequency in the health care
industry.
Reconstructing a History of Disclosures (Other Than for Treatment and
Payment)
To our knowledge, no current State law or professional code
requires providers and plans to maintain the capability to reconstruct
a patient's health information history. Therefore, the requirement in
this rule to be able to reconstruct the disclosure history of protected
health information is completely new. Although it is likely that some
providers and plans have already developed this capability, we assume
that all providers and plans would be required to invest in developing
the capacity to generate disclosure histories.
With respect to reconstruction of disclosure history, two sets of
costs would exist. On electronic records, fields for disclosure reason,
information recipient, and date would have to be built into the data
system. The fixed cost of the designing the system to include this
would be a component of the $90 million additional costs discussed
earlier. The ongoing cost would be the data entry time, which should be
at de minimis levels. Comments would again be especially useful with
respect to the extent to which recording the additional information
goes beyond current practice.
Authorizations
Although many States have laws that require entities to obtain
patient authorization before releasing individually identified health
information to payers and other third parties, many of the
authorization requirements either allow for blanket authorizations that
deprive the patient of meaningful control over the release of their
health information, or the authorization statutes are less stringent
than the provisions of the proposed rule. Therefore, for purposes of
estimating the economic impact of the NPRM, we are assuming that all
providers and plans will have to develop new procedures to conform to
the proposed rule.
Written patient authorization requirements will generate costs, to
the extent covered entities are currently releasing information in the
targeted circumstances without specific authority. Collecting such
authorization should have costs on the order of those associated with
providing access to records (not on a per page basis). The frequency of
such collections is unknown. Since the requirement does not apply to
treatment and payment, assuming 1 percent of the 543 million encounters
over five years might be reasonable. At a cost of about $10 each, the
aggregate cost would be about $54 million annually, or $271 million
over five years. Comments would be especially useful from entities
currently following such procedures.
Training
The ongoing costs associated with paperwork and training are likely
to be minimal. Because training happens as a regular business practice,
and employee certification connected to this training is also the norm,
we estimate that the marginal cost of paperwork and training is likely
to be small. We assume a cost of approximately $20 per provider office,
and approximately $60-100 for health plans and hospitals. Thus, we
estimate that the total cost of paperwork and training will be $22
million a year.
Conclusion
Overall, the five-year costs beyond those already shown in the
administrative simplification estimates would be about $3.8 billion
over five years, with an estimated range of $1.8 to $6.3 billion. Table
2 shows the components described above. The largest cost item is for
amendment and correction, which is over half of the estimated total
cost of the regulation. Inspection and copying, at $405 million over
five years, and issuance of notices by providers and plans, at $439
million over five years, are the second biggest components. The one-
time costs of development of policies and procedures by providers would
represent approximately 10 percent of the total cost, or $333 million.
Plans and clearinghouses would have a substantially smaller cost, about
$62 million. Other systems changes are expected to cost about $90
million over the period. Finally, the estimates do not consider all of
the costs imposed by the regulation.
Table 2.--The Cost of Complying With the Proposed Privacy Regulation
[In Dollars]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial or Annual cost Five year
Provision first year after the (2000-2004)
cost (2000) first year cost
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Development of Policies and Procedures--Providers (totaling $333,000,000 .............. $333,000,000
871,294).......................................................
Development of Policies and Procedures--Plans (totaling 18,225). 62,000,000 .............. 62,000,000
System Changes--All Entities.................................... 90,000,000 .............. 90,000,000
Notice Development Cost--all entities........................... 20,000,000 .............. 30,000,000
Notice Issuance--Providers...................................... 59,730,000 37,152,000 208,340,000
Notice Issuance--Plans.......................................... 46,200,000 46,200,000 231,000,000
Inspection/Copying.............................................. 81,000,000 81,000,000 405,000,000
Amendment/Correction............................................ 407,000,000 407,000,000 2,035,000,000
Written Authorization........................................... 54,300,000 54,300,000 271,500,000
[[Page 60018]]
Paperwork/Training.............................................. 22,000,000 22,000,000 110,000,000
Other Costs *................................................... **N/E N/E N/E
-----------------------------------------------
Total....................................................... 1,165,230,000 647,652,000 3,775,840,000
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Other Costs include: minimum necessary disclosure; monitoring business partners with whom entities share PHI;
creation of de-identified information; internal complaint processes; sanctions; compliance and enforcement;
the designation of a privacy official and creation of a privacy board; additional requirements on research/
optional disclosures that will be imposed by the regulation.
** N/E = ``Not estimated''.
Costs to the Federal Government
The proposed rule will have a cost impact on various federal
agencies that administer programs that require the use of individual
health information. Federal agencies or programs clearly affected by
the rule are those that meet the definition of a covered entity. The
costs when government entities are serving as providers are included in
the total cost estimates. However, non-covered agencies or programs
that handle medical information, either under permissible exceptions to
the disclosure rules or through an individual's expressed
authorization, will likely incur some costs complying with provisions
of this rule. A sample of federal agencies encompassed by the broad
scope of this rule include the: Department of Health and Human
Services, Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs,
Department of State, and the Social Security Administration.
The federal costs of complying with the regulation are included in
the estimates of total costs. The greatest cost and administrative
burden on the federal government will fall to agencies and programs
that act as covered entities, by virtue of being either a health plan
or provider. Examples include the Medicare, Medicaid, Children's Health
Insurance and Indian Health Service programs at the Department of
Health and Human Services; the CHAMPVA health program at the Department
of Veterans Affairs; and the TRICARE health program at the Department
of Defense. These and other health insurance or provider programs
operated by the federal government are subject to requirements placed
on covered entities under this proposed rule, including, but not
limited to, those outlined in Section D of the impact analysis. While
many of these federal programs already afford privacy protections for
individual health information through the Privacy Act, this rule is
expected to create additional requirements beyond those covered by
existing Privacy Act rule. Further, we anticipate that most federal
health programs will, to some extent, need to modify their existing
Privacy Act practices to fully comply with this rule.
The cost to federal programs that function as health plans will be
generally the same as those for the private sector. The primary
difference is the expectation that systems compliance costs may be
higher due to the additional burden of compliance and oversight costs.
A unique cost to the federal government will be in the area of
enforcement. The Office of Civil Rights (OCR), located at the
Department of Health and Human Services, has the primary responsibility
to monitor and audit covered entities. OCR will monitor and audit
covered entities in both the private and government sectors, will
ensure compliance with requirements of this rule, and will investigate
complaints from individuals alleging violations of their privacy
rights. In addition, OCR will be required to recommend penalties and
other remedies as part of their enforcement activities. These
responsibilities represent an expanded role for OCR. Beyond OCR, the
enforcement provisions of this rule will have additional costs to the
federal government through increased litigation, appeals, and inspector
general oversight.
Examples of other unique costs to the federal government include
such activities as public health surveillance at the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, health research projects at the Agency
for Health Care Policy and Research, clinical trials at the National
Institutes of Health, and law enforcement investigations and
prosecutions by the Federal Bureau of Investigations. For these and
other activities, federal agencies will incur some costs to ensure that
protected health information is handled and tracked in ways that comply
with the requirements of this title. A preliminary analysis of these
activities suggests that the federal cost will be on the order of $31
million. We are currently in the process of refining these estimates
and will include better information on them in the final rule.
Costs to State Governments
The proposed rule will also have a cost effect on various state
agencies that administer programs that require the use of individual
health information. State agencies or programs clearly affected by the
rule are those that meet the definition of a covered entity. The costs
when government entities are serving as providers are included in the
total cost estimates. However, non-covered agencies or programs that
handle medical information, either under permissible exceptions to the
disclosure rules or through an individual's expressed authorization,
will likely incur some costs complying with provisions of this rule.
Samples of state agencies encompassed by the broad scope of this rule
include the: Medicaid, Children's Health Insurance program at the
Department of Health and Human Services.
We have included state costs in the estimation of total costs. The
greatest cost and administrative burden on the state government will
fall to agencies and programs that act as covered entities, by virtue
of being either a health plan or provider. Examples include the
Medicaid, Children's Health Insurance program at the Department of
Health and Human Services. These and other health insurance or provider
programs operated by state government are subject to requirements
placed on covered entities under this proposed rule, including, but not
limited to, those outlined in Section D of the impact analysis. While
many of these state programs already afford privacy protections for
individual health information through the Privacy Act, this rule is
expected to create additional requirements beyond those covered by
[[Page 60019]]
existing Privacy Act rule. Further, we anticipate that most state
health programs will, to some extent, need to modify their existing
Privacy Act practices to fully comply with this rule.
The cost to state programs that function as health plans will be
different than the private sector, much as the federal costs vary from
private plans. A preliminary analysis suggests that state costs will be
on the order of $90 million over five years. We will refine the
estimates for the state government costs for enforcement, research and
other distinct state government functions in the final rule. We welcome
comment by state and local governments which will help the Department
improve its analysis on these state costs.
F. Benefits
As we have discussed in the preamble, there are important societal
benefits associated with improving health information privacy.
Confidentiality is a key component of trust between patients and
providers, and some studies indicate that a lack of privacy may deter
patients from obtaining preventive care and treatment. 21
For these reasons, traditional approaches to estimating the value of a
commodity cannot fully capture the value of personal privacy. It may be
difficult for individuals to assign value to privacy protection because
most individuals view personal privacy as a right. Because we promote
the view that privacy protection is an important personal right, the
benefits of the proposed regulation are impossible to estimate based on
the market value of health information alone. However, it is possible
to evaluate some of the benefits that may accrue to individuals as a
result of proposed regulation, and these benefits, alone, suggest that
the regulation is warranted. Added to these benefits is the intangible
value of privacy, the personal security that we may feel when our
records are confidential, which is very real and very significant but
for which there is no economic value or proxy.
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\21\ Equifax-Harris Consumer Privacy Survey, 1994.
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There are a number of ways to discuss the expected benefits of this
proposed regulation. The first option is to discuss the benefits
qualitatively. We believe that this is necessary to give the reader a
basic understanding of how this proposed regulation will benefit
society. The second option that we have used is to quantify the
benefits of the proposed rule as they would apply to a few illness
categories that may be particularly responsive to privacy concerns.
This quantitative discussion is meant to be illustrative of the
benefits rather than a comprehensive accounting of all of the benefits
of the proposed rule. The combination of the two approaches clearly
illustrates that the benefits of the regulation are significant in
relation to the economic costs.
Before beginning our discussion of the benefits, it is important to
create a framework for how the costs and benefits may be viewed in
terms of individuals rather than societal aggregates. We have estimated
the value an insured individual would need to place on increased
privacy to make the proposed Privacy regulation a net benefit to those
who receive health insurance. Our estimates are derived from data
produced by the 1998 Current Population Survey from the Census Bureau,
and report that 220 million persons are covered by either private or
public health insurance. Joining the Census Bureau data with cost
assumptions calculated in Section E, we have estimated the cost of the
proposed regulation is $3.41 per insured individual. If we assume that
individuals who use the health care system will be willing to pay more
than $3.41 per year (or approximately $0.28 per month) to improve
health information privacy, the benefits of the proposed regulation
will outweigh the cost.
This is a conservative estimate of the number of people who will
benefit from the regulation because it assumes that only those
individuals who have health insurance will use medical services or
benefit from the provisions of the proposed regulation. Currently,
there are 44 million Americans who do not have any form of health care
insurance. In addition, the estimates do not include those who pay for
medical care directly, without any insurance or government support. By
lowering the number of users in the system, we have inflated our
estimate of the per-person cost of the regulation, therefore, we assume
that our estimate represents the highest cost to an individual.
An alternative approach to determining how people would have to
value increased privacy for this regulation to be beneficial is to look
at the costs divided by the number of encounters with health care
professionals annually. Data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey
(MEPS) produced by the Agency for Health Care Policy Research (AHCPR)
report approximately 1.62 billion health care visits, or encounters
annually (e.g., office visits, hospital and nursing home stays, etc.).
As with our calculation of average annual cost per insured patient, we
have divided the total cost of complying with the regulation ($751
million per year) by the total annual number of health care encounters.
The cost of instituting requirements of the proposed regulation is
$0.46 per health care encounter. If we assume that individuals would be
willing to pay more than $0.46 per health care encounter to improve
health information privacy, the benefits of the proposed regulation
will outweigh the cost.
Qualitative Discussion
A well designed privacy standard can be expected to build
confidence among the public about the confidentiality of their medical
records. The seriousness of public concerns about privacy in general
are shown in the 1994 Equifax-Harris Consumer Privacy Survey, where
``84 percent of Americans are either very or somewhat concerned about
threats to their personal privacy.'' 22 A 1999 report,
``Promoting Health and Protecting Privacy'' notes ``* * * many people
fear their personal health information will be used against them: to
deny insurance, employment, and housing, or to expose them to unwanted
judgements and scrutiny.'' 23 These concerns would be partly
allayed by the privacy standard. Further, increased confidence will
increase the likelihood of some people seeking treatment for particular
classes of disease. It will also change the dynamic of current
payments. Insured patients currently paying out-of-pocket for
confidentiality reasons will be more likely to file with their insurer.
The increased utilization that would result from increased confidence
in privacy could be beneficial under many circumstances. For many
medical conditions, early treatment can lead to lower costs.
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\22\ Consumer Privacy Survey, Harris-Equifax, 1994, p. vi.
\23\ Promoting Health: Protecting Privacy, California Health
Care Foundation and Consumers Union, January 1999, p. 12.
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Fear of disclosure of treatment is an impediment to health care for
many Americans. In the 1993 Harris-Equifax Health Information Privacy
Survey, 7 percent of respondents said they or a member of their
immediate family had chosen not to seek medical services due to fear of
harm to job prospects or other life opportunities. About 2 percent
reported having chosen not to file an insurance claim because of
concerns with privacy or confidentiality. 24 Increased
confidence on the part of patients that their privacy would be
protected would lead to increased
[[Page 60020]]
treatment among people who delay or never begin care, as well as among
people who receive treatment but pay directly (to the extent that the
ability to use their insurance benefits will reduce cost barriers to
more complete treatment).
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\24\ Health Information Privacy Survey, Harris-Equifax, 1993,
pp. 49-50.
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The following are four examples of areas where increased confidence
in privacy would have significant benefits. They were chosen both
because they are representative of widespread and serious health
problems, and because they are areas where reliable and relatively
complete data are available for this kind of analysis. The logic of the
analysis, however, applies to any health condition. Even for relatively
minor conditions, an individual still might be concerned with
maintaining privacy, and even a person with no significant health
problems is going to value privacy because of the possibility at some
time they will have a condition that they want to keep private.
Cancer. The societal burden of disease imposed by cancer is
indisputable. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the
US,25 exceeded only by heart disease. In 1999, 1.38 million
new cancer cases will be diagnosed, as well as 900,000 new basal and
squamous skin cell cancers. 26 The National Cancer Institute
estimates that the overall cost of cancer is $104 billion; $35 billion
in direct medical cost, $12 billion for morbidity costs (cost of lost
productivity) and $57 billion for mortality costs.27
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\25\ American Cancer Society. http://4a2z.com/cgi/
rfr.cgi?4CANCER-2-http://www.cancer.org/frames.html
\26\ American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/statistics/
97cff/97facts.html
\27\ American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/statistics/
97cff/97facts.html
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Among the most important elements in the fight against cancer are
screening, early detection and treatment of the disease. However,
however, many patients are concerned that some screening procedures
will make them vulnerable to discrimination by insurers or employers.
These privacy concerns have been cited as a reason patients do not seek
early treatment for diseases such as cancer. As a result of forgoing
early screening, cancer patients may ultimately face a more severe
illness. For example, half of new diagnoses occur among types of cancer
for which screening is available. Based on this research, studies show
that if Americans participated in regular cancer screening, the rate of
survival among patients who have screening-accessible cancers could
increase to 95 percent.28
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\28\ American Cancer Society. http://www.cancer.org/statistics/
97cff/97facts.html
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Approximately 184,300 women will be diagnosed with breast cancer
this year,29 and 25,000 women will be diagnosed with ovarian
cancer.30 In the same year, almost 44,000 women will die of
breast cancer,31 and 14,500 will die from ovarian
cancer.32 Early detection of these cancers could have a
significant impact on reducing loss due to disability and death. For
example, only 24 percent of ovarian cancers are diagnosed in the early
stages. Of these, approximately 90 percent of patients survive
treatment. The survival rate of women who detect breast cancer early is
similarly high; more than 90 percent of women who detect and treat
breast cancer in its early stages will survive.33
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\29\ Avon's Breast Cancer Crusade. http://www.pmedia.com/Avon/
library/faq.html
\30\ Ovarian Cancer National Alliance. http://
www.ovariancancer.org/index.shtml
\31\ Cancer Statistics, 1999, Landis, Murray, Bolden and Wingo.
CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, Jan/Feb, 1999, Vol. 49, No. 1
\32\ Ovarian Cancer National Alliance. http://
www.ovariancancer.org/index.shtml
\33\ Breast Cancer Information Service. http://trfn.clpgh.org/
bcis/FAQ/facts2.html
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Researchers have developed screening techniques to identify breast,
ovarian, and colon cancers, and tests have been developed to identify
the presence or absence of cellular abnormalities that may lead to
cancer. Despite these technological advances, the principle of patient
autonomy requires that patients must decide for themselves if they will
submit to screening procedures. Many individuals fear that employers
and insurers will use cancer screening to discriminate against them.
Several studies illustrate that persons with and without cancer fear
discrimination. Thus, despite the potential benefits that early
identification of cancer may yield, many researchers find that patient
concerns regarding the confidentiality of cancer screening may prevent
them from requesting the test, and result in disability or loss of
life.
HIV/AIDS. Early detection is essential for the health and survival
of an HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) positive person. Concerns
about the confidentiality of HIV status may prevent some people from
getting tested. For this reason, each state has passed some sort of
legislation regarding the confidentiality of HIV status. However, HIV
status can be revealed indirectly through disclosure of HAART (Highly
Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy) or similar HIV treatment drug use. In
addition, since HIV/AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is often
the only specially protected condition, ``blacked out'' information on
medical charts could indicate HIV positive status.34
Strengthening privacy protections beyond this disease could increase
confidence in privacy regarding HIV as well. Drug therapy for HIV
positive persons has proven to be a life-extending, cost-effective
tool. 35 A 1998 study showed that beginning treatment with
HAART in the early asymptomatic stage is more cost-effective than
beginning it late. After five years, only 15 percent of patients with
early treatment are estimated to develop an ADE (AIDS-defining event),
whereas 29 percent would if treatment began later. Early treatment with
HAART prolongs survival (adjusted for quality of life) by 6.2 percent.
The overall cost-effectiveness of early HAART treatment is estimated at
$23,700 per quality-adjusted year of life saved.36
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\34\ Promoting Health: Protecting Privacy, California Health
Care Foundation and Consumers Union, January 1999, p. 13.
\35\ For example, Roger Detels, M.D., et al., in ``Effectiveness
of Potent Anti-Retroviral Therapy * * * ``JAMA, 1998; 280: 1497-1503
note the impact of therapy on HIV persons with respect to
lengthening the time to development of AIDS, not just delaying death
in persons who already have AIDS.
\36\ John Hornberger et al, ``Early treatment with Highly Active
Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART) is cost-effective compared to
delayed treatment,'' 12th World AIDS conference, 1998.
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Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases. It is difficult to know how
many people are avoiding testing for STDs despite having a sexually
transmitted disease. A 1998 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found
that the incidence of disease was 15.3 million in 1996, though there is
great uncertainty due to under-reporting.37 For a
potentially embarrassing disease such as an STD, seeking treatment
requires trust in both the provider and the health care system for
confidentiality. Greater trust should lead to more testing and greater
levels of treatment. Earlier treatment for curable STDs can mean a
decrease in morbidity and the costs associated with complications.
These include expensive fertility problems, fetal blindness, ectopic
pregnancies, and other reproductive complications.38 In
addition, there could be greater overall savings if earlier treatment
translates into reduced spread of infections.
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\37\ Sexually Transmitted Diseases in America, Kaiser Family
Foundation, 1998. p. 12.
\38\ Standard Medical information; see http://www.mayohealth.org
for examples.
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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Treatment. When individuals have
a better understanding of the privacy practices that we are requiring
in this proposed rule, some will be less reluctant to seek substance
abuse and mental health treatment. One way that individuals will
receive this information is through the notice requirement.
[[Page 60021]]
Increased use of mental health services would be expected to be
beneficial to the persons receiving the care, to their families, and to
society at large. The individual direct benefit from treatment would
include an improved quality of life, reduced disability associated with
the mental conditions, and a reduced mortality rate. The benefit to
families would include quality of life improvements and reduced medical
costs for other family members associated with abusive behavior by the
treated individual. The benefit to society would include reduced costs
of crime and reduced future public program treatment costs.
The 1998 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Statistics Source Book
from SAMHSA reports cost-of-disease estimates from a range of studies,
suggesting several hundred billion dollars of non-treatment costs
associated with alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders. As an
example of the magnitude of costs associated with mental health
treatment, a 1997 National Institutes of Health report suggests that
the total economic cost of mental health disorders such as anxiety,
depressive (mood) disorders, eating disorders, and schizophrenia is
approximately $115.5 billion annually.39 Evidence suggests
that appropriate treatment of mental health disorders can result in 50-
80 percent of individuals experiencing improvements in these types of
conditions. Improvements in patient functioning and reduced hospital
stays could result in hundreds of million of dollars in cost savings
annually.
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\39\ Disease-Specific Estimates of Direct and Indirect Costs of
Illness and NIH Support; 1997 Update, 1997.
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The potential additional economic benefits associated with
improving patient confidentiality and thus encouraging some unknown
portion of individuals to either seek initial mental health treatment
or increase service use are difficult to quantify well. Nevertheless,
one can lay out a range of possible benefit levels to illustrate the
possibility of cost savings associated with an expansion of mental
health treatment to individuals who, due to protections offered by the
privacy regulation, might seek mental health treatment that they
otherwise would not have absent this regulation. This can be
illustrated by drawing upon existing data on both the economic costs of
mental illness and the treatment effectiveness of mental health
interventions.
Although figures on the number of individuals who avoid mental
health treatment due to privacy concerns do not exist, some indirect
evidence is available. A 1993 Harris-Equifax Health Information Privacy
Survey (noted earlier) found that 7 percent of respondents reported
that they or a member of their immediate family had chosen not to seek
services for a physical or mental health condition due to fear of harm
to job prospects or other life opportunities. It should be noted that
this survey is somewhat dated and represents only one estimate.
Moreover, given the wording of the question, there are other reasons
aside from privacy concerns that led these individuals to respond
positively.
For the purpose of an illustration, however, assumptions can be
made about what proportion of the 7 percent responding affirmatively to
this question may have avoided seeking mental health services due to
privacy concerns. Given the proportion of mental health services that
compromise total health care services in this country, a reasonable
upper limit of the number of individuals avoiding mental health
treatment due to privacy concerns might be 1.8 percent (i.e., 25% of
7%), while a reasonable lower limit might be 0.36 percent (i.e., 5% of
7%). Taking these figures as upper and lower limits, it is possible to
estimate potential benefits by multiplying these figures by the annual
economic cost reductions associated with treatment effectiveness rates.
For example, using the upper limit of 1.8 percent, multiplying this by
the annual economic costs of mental illness ($115.5 billion) and a
treatment effectiveness rate of 80 percent, yields an estimate of
potential annual benefits of $1,663,200,000. Similarly, using the upper
limit of 1.8 percent coupled with a treatment effectiveness rate of 50
percent yields an estimate of potential annual benefits of
$1,039,500,000. Assuming a lower limit of 0.36 percent more individuals
seeking mental health treatment due to enhance privacy protections,
coupled with a treatment effectiveness rate of 80% yields an estimate
of potential annual benefits of $332,640,000. Similarly, using the
lower limit of 0.36 percent coupled with a treatment effectiveness rate
of 50 percent yields an estimate of potential annual benefits of
$207,900,000. Therefore, given the existing data on the annual economic
costs of mental illness and the rates of treatment effectiveness for
these disorders, coupled with assumptions regarding the percentage of
individuals who might seek mental health treatment under conditions of
greater privacy protections, the potential additional economic benefit
in this one treatment area could range from approximately $208 million
to $1.67 billion annually.
Table 3.--Potential Benefits of the Proposed Privacy Regulation From
Cost Savings Due to Early Treatment of Mental Health Disorders
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total annual Percent net cost
economic cost of reduction if
Illness illness (in additional care
billions) is received
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mental Health--Anxiety Disorders.... $46.6 70-90
Mental Health--Depressive (Mood) 30.4 60-80
Disorders..........................
Mental Health--Eating Disorders..... 6.0 40-60
Mental Health--Schizophrenia........ 32.5 60-85
-----------------------------------
Total........................... 115.5 N/A
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[[Page 60022]]
G. Examination of Alternative Approaches
1. Creation of De-identified Information (164.506(d))
We considered defining ``individually identifiable health
information'' as any information that is not anonymous, that is, for
which there is any possibility of identifying the subject. We rejected
this option, for several reasons. First, the statute suggests a
different approach. The term ``individually identifiable health
information'' is defined in HIPAA as health information that:
* * * identifies the individual, or with respect to which there is a
reasonable basis to believe that the information can be used to
identify the individual.
By including the modifier ``reasonable basis,'' Congress appears to
reject the absolute approach to defining ``identifiable.'' Covered
entities would not always have the statistical sophistication to know
with certainty when sufficient identifying information has been removed
so that the record is no longer identifiable. We believe that covered
entities need more concrete guidance as to when information will and
will not be ``identifiable'' for purposes of this regulation.
Defining non-identifiable to mean anonymous would require covered
entities to comply with the terms of this regulation with respect to
information for which the probability of identification of the subject
is very low. We want to encourage covered entities and others to remove
obvious identifiers or encrypt them whenever possible; use of the
absolute definition of ``identifiable'' would not promote this salutary
result.
For these reasons, we propose at Sec. 164.506(d)(2)(ii) that there
be a presumption that, if specified identifying information is removed
and if the holder has no reason to believe that the remaining
information can be used by the reasonably anticipated recipients alone
or in combination with other information to identify an individual,
then the covered entity would be presumed to have created de-identified
information.
At the same time, in proposed Sec. 164.506(d)(2)(iii), we are
leaving leeway for more sophisticated data users to take a different
approach. We are including a ``reasonableness'' standard so that
entities with sufficient statistical experience and expertise could
remove or code a different combination of information, so long as the
result is still a low probability of identification. With this
approach, our intent is to provide certainty for most covered entities,
while not limiting the options of more sophisticated data users.
In this rule we are proposing that covered entities and their
business partners be permitted to use protected health information to
create de-identified health information. Covered entities would be
permitted to further use and disclose such de-identified information in
any way, provided that they do not disclose the key or other mechanism
that would enable the information to be re-identified, and provided
that they reasonably believe that such use or disclosure of de-
identified information will not result in the use or disclosure of
protected health information. See proposed Sec. 164.506(d)(1). This
means that a covered entity could not disclose de-identified
information to a person if the covered entity reasonably believes that
the person would be able to re-identify some or all of that
information, unless disclosure of protected health information to such
person would be permitted under this proposed rule. In addition, a
covered entity could not use or disclose the key to coded identifiers
if this rule would not permit the use or disclosure of the identified
information to which the key pertains. If a covered entity re-
identifies the de-identified information, it may only use or disclose
the re-identified information consistent with these proposed rules, as
if it were the original protected health information.
We invite comment on the approach that we are proposing and on
whether alternative approaches to standards for entities determining
when health information can reasonably be considered no longer
individually identifiable should be considered.
2. General Rules (Sec. 164.506)
As a general rule, we are proposing that protected health
information not be used or disclosed by covered entities except as
authorized by the individual who is the subject of such information or
as explicitly provided this rule. Under this proposal, most uses and
disclosures of an individual's protected health information would not
require explicit authorization by the individual, but would be
restricted by the provisions of the rule. Covered entities would be
able to use or disclose an individual's protected health information
without authorization for treatment, payment and health care
operations. See proposed Sec. 164.506(a)(1)(i). Covered entities also
would be permitted to use or disclose an individual's protected health
information for specified public and public policy-related purposes,
including public health, research, health oversight, law enforcement,
and use by coroners. Covered entities would be permitted by this rule
to use and disclose protected health information when required to do so
by other law, such as a mandatory reporting requirement under State law
or pursuant to a search warrant. See proposed Sec. 164.510. Covered
entities would be required by this rule to disclose protected health
information for only two purposes: to permit individuals to inspect and
copy protected health information about them (see proposed
Sec. 164.514) and for enforcement of this rule (see proposed
Sec. 164.522(d)).
Covered entities of all types and sizes would be required to comply
with the proposed privacy standards outlined below. The proposed
standards would not impose particular mechanisms or procedures that
covered entities must adopt to implement the standards. Instead, we
would require that each affected entity assess its own needs and
devise, implement, and maintain appropriate privacy policies,
procedures, and documentation to address its business requirements. How
each privacy standard would be satisfied would be a business decision
that each entity would have to make. This permits the privacy standards
to establish a stable baseline, yet remain flexible enough to take
advantage of developments and methods for protecting privacy that will
evolve over time.
Because the privacy standards would need to be implemented by all
covered entities, from the smallest provider to the largest, multi-
state health plan, a single approach to implementing these standards
would be neither economically feasible nor effective in safeguarding
health information privacy. For example, in a small physician practice
the office manager might be designated to serve as the privacy official
as one of many duties (see proposed Sec. 164.518(a)) whereas at a large
health plan, the privacy official may constitute a full time position
and have the regular support and advice of a privacy staff or board.
In taking this approach, we intend to strike a balance between the
need to maintain the confidentiality of protected health information
and the economic cost of doing so. Health care entities must consider
both aspects in devising their solutions. This approach is similar to
the approach we proposed in the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for the
administrative simplification security and electronic signature
standards.
[[Page 60023]]
3. Use and Disclosure for Treatment, Payment, and Health Care
Operations (Sec. 164.506(a))
We are proposing that, subject to limited exceptions for
psychotherapy notes and research information unrelated to treatment
discussed below, a covered entity be permitted to use or disclose
protected health information without individual authorization for
treatment, payment or health care operations.
We are not proposing to require individual authorizations of uses
and disclosures for health care and related purposes, although such
authorizations are routinely gathered today as a condition of obtaining
health care or enrolling in a health plan. Although many current
disclosures of health information are made pursuant to individual
authorizations, these authorizations provide individuals with little
actual control over their health information. When an individual is
required to sign a blanket authorization at the point of receiving care
or enrolling for coverage, that consent is often not voluntary because
the individual must sign the form as a condition of treatment or
payment for treatment. Individuals are also often asked to sign broad
authorizations but are provided little or no information about how
their health information would be or will in fact be used. Individuals
cannot make a truly informed decision without knowing all the possible
uses, disclosures and re-disclosures to which their information will be
subject. In addition, since the authorization usually precedes creation
of the record, the individual cannot predict all the information the
record could contain and therefore cannot make an informed decision as
to what would be released.
Our proposal is intended to make the exchange of protected health
information relatively easy for health care purposes and more difficult
for purposes other than health care. For individuals, health care
treatment and payment are the core functions of the health care system.
This is what they expect their health information will be used for when
they seek medical care and present their proof of insurance to the
provider. Consistent with this expectation, we considered requiring a
separate individual authorization for every use or disclosure of
information but rejected such an approach because it would not be
realistic in an increasingly integrated health care system. For
example, a requirement for separate patient authorization for each
routine referral could impair care, by delaying consultation and
referral as well as payment.
We therefore propose that covered entities be permitted to use and
disclose protected health information without individual authorization
for treatment and payment purposes, and for related purposes that we
have defined as health care operations. For example, providers could
maintain and refer to a medical record, disclose information to other
providers or persons as necessary for consultation about diagnosis or
treatment, and disclose information as part of referrals to other
providers. Providers also could use a patient's protected health
information for payment purposes such as submitting a claim to a payer.
In addition, providers could use a patient's protected health
information for health care operations, such as use for an internal
quality oversight review. We would note that, in the case of an
individual where the provider has agreed to restrictions on use or
disclosure of the patient's protected health information, the provider
would be bound by such restrictions as provided in Sec. 164.506(c).
We also propose to prohibit covered entities from seeking
individual authorization for uses and disclosures for treatment,
payment and health care operations unless required by State or other
applicable law. As discussed above in section II.C, such authorizations
could not provide meaningful privacy protections or individual control
and could in fact cultivate in individuals erroneous understandings of
their rights and protections.
The general approach that we are proposing is not new. Some
existing State health confidentiality laws permit disclosures without
individual authorization to other health care providers treating the
individual, and the Uniform Health-Care Information Act permits
disclosure ``to a person who is providing health-care to the patient''
(9 Part I, U.L.A. 475, 2-104 (1988 and Supp. 1998)). We believe that
this approach would be the most realistic way to protect individual
confidentiality in an increasingly data-driven, electronic and
integrated health care system. We recognize, however, that particularly
given the limited scope of the authority that we have under this
proposed rule to reach some significant actors in the health care
system, that other approaches could be of interest. We invite comments
on whether other approaches to protecting individuals' health
information would be more effective.
4. Minimum Necessary Use and Disclosure (Sec. 164.506(b))
We propose that, except as discussed below, a covered entity must
make all reasonable efforts not to use or disclose more than the
minimum amount of protected health information necessary to accomplish
the intended purpose of the use or disclosure, taking into
consideration technological limitations.
Under this proposal, covered entities generally would be required
to establish policies and procedures to limit the amount of protected
health care information used or disclosed to the minimum amount
necessary to meet the purpose of the use or disclosure, and to limit
access to protected health information only to those people who need
access to the information to accomplish the use or disclosure. With
respect to use, if an entity consists of several different components,
the entity would be required to create barriers between components so
that information is not used inappropriately. The same principle
applies to disclosures.
A ``minimum necessary'' determination would need to be consistent
with and directly related to the purpose of the use or disclosure and
take into consideration the ability of a covered entity to delimit the
amount of information used or disclosed and the relative burden imposed
on the entity. The proposed minimum necessary requirement is based on a
reasonableness standard: covered entities would be required to make
reasonable efforts and to incur reasonable expense to limit the use and
disclosure of protected health information as provided in this section.
In our discussions of the minimum necessary requirement, we
considered whether or not this should apply to all entities and whether
or not it should be applied to all protected health information. We
decided that the principle of minimum necessary disclosure is critical
to the protection of privacy and that because small entities represent
83 percent of the health care industry, we would not exempt them from
this provision without undermining its effectiveness.
We understand that the requirements outlined in this section do not
create a bright line test for determining the minimum necessary amount
of protected health information appropriate for most uses or
disclosures. Because of this lack of precision, we considered
eliminating the requirement altogether. We also considered merely
requiring covered entities to address the concept within their internal
privacy
[[Page 60024]]
procedures, with no further guidance as to how each covered entity
would address the issue. These approaches were rejected because
minimizing both the amount of protected health information used and
disclosed within the health care system and the number of persons who
have access to such information is vital if we are to successfully
enhance the confidentiality of people's personal health information. We
invite comments on the approach that we have adopted and on alternative
methods of implementing the minimum necessary principle.
5. Right To Restrict Uses and Disclosures (Sec. 164.506(c))
We propose to permit in Sec. 164.506(c) that individuals be able to
request that a covered entity restrict further uses and disclosures of
protected health information for treatment, payment, or health care
operations, and if the covered entity agrees to the requested
restrictions, the covered entity could not make uses or disclosures for
treatment, payment or health care operations that are inconsistent with
such restrictions, unless such uses or disclosures are mandated by law.
This provision would not apply to health care provided to an individual
on an emergency basis.
We should note that there is nothing in this proposed rule that
would require a covered entity to agree to a request to restrict, or to
treat or provide coverage to an individual requesting a restriction
under this provision. Covered entities who do not wish to, or due to
contractual obligations cannot, restrict further use or disclosure are
not obligated to agree to a request under this provision.
We considered providing individuals substantially more control over
their protected health information by requiring all covered entities to
attempt to accommodate any restrictions on use and disclosure requested
by patients. We rejected this option as unworkable. While industry
groups have developed principles for requiring patient authorizations,
we have not found widely accepted standards for implementing patient
restrictions on uses or disclosures. Restrictions on information use or
disclosure contained in patient consent forms are sometimes ignored
because they may not be read or are lost in files. Thus, it seems
unlikely that a requested restriction could successfully follow a
patient's information through the health care system--from treatment to
payment, through numerous operations, and potentially through certain
permissible disclosures. Instead we would limit the provision to
restrictions that have been agreed to by the covered entity.
We recognize that the approach that we are proposing could be
difficult because of the systems limitations described above. However,
we believe that the limited right for patients proposed in this
proposed rule can be implemented because it only applies in instances
in which the covered entity agrees to the restrictions. We assume that
covered entities would not agree to restrictions that they are unable
to implement.
We considered limiting the rights under this provision to patients
who pay for their own health care (or for whom no payment was made by a
health plan). Individuals and providers that engage in self-pay
transactions have minimal effect on the rights or responsibilities or
payers or other providers, and so there would be few instances when a
restriction agreed to in such a situation would have negative
implications for the interests of other health care actors. Limiting
the right to restrict to self-pay patients also would reduce the number
of requests that would be made under this provision. We rejected this
approach, however, because the desire to restrict further uses and
disclosures arises in many instances other than self-pay situations.
For example, a patient could not want his or her records shared with a
particular physician because that physician is a family friend. Or an
individual could be seeking a second opinion and may not want his or
her treating physician consulted. Individuals have a legitimate
interest in restricting disclosures in these situations. We solicit
comment on the appropriateness of limiting this provision to instances
in which no health plan payment is made on behalf of the individual.
6. Application to Business Partners (Sec. 164.506(e))
In Sec. 164.506(e), we propose to require covered entities to take
specific steps to ensure that protected health information disclosed to
a business partner remains protected. We intend these provisions to
allow customary business relationships in the health care industry to
continue while providing privacy protections to the information shared
in these relationships. Business partners would not be permitted to use
or disclose protected health information in ways that would not be
permitted of the covered entity itself under these rules.
Other than for purposes of consultation or referral for treatment,
we would allow covered entities to disclose protected health
information to business partners only pursuant to a written contract
that would, among other specified provisions, limit the business
partner's uses and disclosures of protected health information to those
permitted by the contract, and would impose certain security,
inspection and reporting requirements on the business partner. We would
hold the covered entity responsible for certain violations of this
proposed rule made by their business partners, and require assignment
of responsibilities when a covered entity acts as a business partner of
another covered entity.
Under this proposed rule, a business partner would be acting on
behalf of a covered entity, and we propose that its use or disclosure
of protected health information be limited to the same extent that the
covered entity for whom they are acting would be limited. Thus, a
business partner could have no more authority to use or disclose
protected health information than that possessed by the covered entity
from which the business partner received the information. We would note
that a business partner's authority to use and disclose protected
health information could be further restricted by its contract with a
covered entity, as described below.
We are not proposing to require the business partners of covered
entities to develop and distribute a notice of information practices,
as provided in proposed Sec. 164.512. A business partner would,
however, be bound by the terms of the notice of the covered entity from
which it obtains protected health information. See proposed
Sec. 164.506(e). We are proposing this approach so that individuals
could rely on the notices that they receive from the covered entities
to which they disclose protected health information. If the business
partners of a covered entity were able to make wider use or make more
disclosures than the covered entity, the patients or enrollees of the
covered entity would have difficulty knowing how their information was
being used and to whom it was being disclosed.
We are also proposing that a business partner's use and disclosure
of protected health information be limited by the terms of the business
partner's contractual agreement with the covered entity. We propose
that a contract between a covered entity and a business partner could
not grant the business partner authority to make uses or disclosures of
protected health information that the covered entity itself would not
have the authority to make. The contract between a covered entity and a
business partner could further limit the business partner's authority
to
[[Page 60025]]
use or disclose protected health information as agreed to by the
parties. Further, the business partner would have to apply the same
limitations to its subcontractors (or persons with similar
arrangements) who assist with or carry out the business partner's
activities.
To help ensure that the uses and disclosures of business partners
are limited to those recognized as appropriate by the covered entities
from whom they receive protected health information, subject to the
exception discussed below, we are proposing that covered entities be
prohibited from disclosing protected health information to a business
partner unless the covered entity has entered into a written contract
with the business partner that meets the requirements of this
subsection. See proposed Sec. 164.506(e)(2)(i).
The contract requirement that we are proposing would permit covered
entities to exercise control over their business partners' activities
and provides documentation of the relationship between the parties,
particularly the scope of the uses and disclosures of protected health
information that business partners could make. The presence of a
contract also would formalize the relationship, better assuring that
key questions such as security, scope of use and disclosure, and access
by subject individuals are adequately addressed and that the roles of
the respective parties are clarified. Finally, a contract can bind the
business partner to return any protected health information from the
covered entity when the relationship is terminated.
In lieu of a contracting requirement, we considered imposing only
affirmative duties on covered entities to ensure that their
relationships with business partners conformed to the standards
discussed in the previous paragraph. Such an approach could be
considered less burdensome and restrictive, because we would be leaving
it to the parties to determine how to make the standards effective. We
rejected this approach primarily because we believe that in the vast
majority of cases, the only way that the parties could establish a
relationship with these terms would be through contract. We also
determined that the value of making the terms explicit through a
written contract would better enable the parties to know their roles
and responsibilities, as well as better enable the Secretary to
exercise her oversight role. In addition, we understand that most
covered entities already enter into contracts in these situations and
therefore this proposal would not disturb general business practice. We
invite comment on whether there are other contractual or non-
contractual approaches that would afford an adequate level of
protection to individuals' protected health information. We also invite
comment on the specific provisions and terms of the proposed approach.
We are proposing one exception to the contracting requirement: when
a covered entity consults with or makes a referral to another covered
entity for the treatment of an individual, we would propose that the
sharing of protected health information pursuant to that consultation
or referral not be subject to the contracting requirement described
above. See proposed Sec. 164.506(e)(1)(i). Unlike most business partner
relationships, which involve the systematic sharing of protected health
information under a business relationship, consultation and referrals
for treatment occur on a more informal basis among peers, and are
specific to a particular individual. Such exchanges of information for
treatment also appear to be less likely to raise concerns about further
impermissible use or disclosure, because providers receiving such
information are unlikely to have a commercial or other interest in
using or disclosing the information. We invite comment on the
appropriateness of this exception, and whether there are additional
exceptions that should be included in the final regulation.
We note that covered health care providers receiving protected
health information for consultation or referral purposes would still be
subject to this rule, and could not use or disclose such protected
health information for a purpose other than the purpose for which it
was received (i.e., the consultation or referral). Further, we note
that providers making disclosures for consultations or referrals should
be careful to inform the receiving provider of any special limitations
or conditions to which the disclosing provider has agreed to impose
(e.g., the disclosing provider has provided notice to its patients that
it will not make disclosures for research).
We are proposing that covered entities be accountable for the uses
and disclosures of protected health information by their business
partners. A covered entity would be in violation of this rule if the
covered entity knew or reasonably should have known of a material
breach of the contract by a business partner and it failed to take
reasonable steps to cure the breach or terminate the contract. See
proposed Sec. 164.506(e)(2)(iii). A covered entity that is aware of
impermissible uses and disclosures by a business partner would be
responsible for taking such steps as are necessary to prevent further
improper use or disclosures and, to the extent practicable, for
mitigating any harm caused by such violations. This would include, for
example, requiring the business partner to retrieve inappropriately
disclosed information (even if the business partner must pay for it) as
a condition of continuing to do business with the covered entity. A
covered entity that knows or should know of impermissible use of
protected health information by its business partner and fails to take
reasonable steps to end the breach would be in violation of this rule.
We considered requiring covered entities to terminate relationships
with business partners if the business partner committed a serious
breach of contact terms required by this subpart or if the business
partner exhibited a pattern or practice of behavior that resulted in
repeated breaches of such terms. We rejected that approach because of
the substantial disruptions in business relationships and customer
service when terminations occur. We instead require the covered entity
to take reasonable steps to end the breach and mitigate its effects. We
would expect covered entities to terminate the arrangement if it
becomes clear that a business partner cannot be relied upon to maintain
the privacy of protected health information provided to it. We invite
comments on our approach here and whether requiring automatic
termination of business partner contracts would be warranted in any
circumstances.
We also considered imposing more strict liability on covered
entities for the actions of their business partners, just as principals
are strictly liable for the actions of their agents under common law.
We decided, however, that this could impose too great a burden on
covered entities, particularly small providers. We are aware that, in
some cases, the business partner will be larger and more sophisticated
with respect to information handling than the covered entity. Therefore
we instead opted to propose that covered entities monitor use of
protected health information by business partners, and be held
responsible only when they knew or should have known of improper use of
protected health information.
Our intention in this section is to recognize the myriad of
business relationships that currently exist and to ensure that when
they involve the exchange of protected health information, the roles
and responsibilities of the different parties with respect to the
protected health
[[Page 60026]]
information are clear. We do not propose to fundamentally alter the
types of business relationships that exist in the health care industry
or the manner in which they function. We request comments on the extent
to which our proposal would disturb existing contractual or other
arrangements among covered entities and business partners.
7. Application to Information About Deceased Persons (Sec. 164.506(f))
We are proposing that information otherwise protected by these
regulations retain that protection for two years after the death of the
subject of the information. The only exception that we are proposing is
for uses and disclosures for research purposes.
HIPAA includes no temporal limitations on the application of the
privacy protections. Although we have the authority to protect
individually identifiable health information maintained by a covered
entity indefinitely, we are proposing that the requirements of this
rule generally apply for only a limited period, as discussed below. In
traditional privacy law, privacy interests, in the sense of the right
to control use or disclosure of information about oneself, cease at
death. However, good arguments exist in favor both of protecting and
not protecting information about the deceased. Considering that one of
the underlying purposes of health information confidentiality is to
encourage a person seeking treatment to be frank in the interest of
obtaining care, there is good reason for protecting information even
after death. Federal agencies and others sometimes withhold sensitive
information, such as health information, to protect the privacy of
surviving family members. At the same time, perpetual confidentiality
has serious drawbacks. If information is needed for legitimate
purposes, the consent of a living person legally authorized to grant
such consent must be obtained, and the further from the date of death,
the more difficult it may be to identify the person. The administrative
burden of perpetual protection may eventually outweigh the privacy
interests served.
While various State laws have been passed specifically addressing
privacy of genetic information, there is currently no federal
legislation that deals with these issues. We considered extending the
two-year period for genetic and hereditary information, but were unable
to construct criteria for protecting the possible privacy interests of
living children without creating extensive burden for information
holders and hampering health research. We invite comments on whether
further action is needed in this area and what types of practical
provisions may be appropriate to protect genetic and hereditary health
information.
8. Uses and Disclosures With Individual Authorization (Sec. 164.508)
Covered entities would be required to obtain individual
authorization to use individually identifiable health information for
purposes other than those allowed under the rule. Activities requiring
authorization include, for example, marketing. Costs will be ongoing
for staffing and administrative activities related to obtaining
authorization from individuals.
Our proposal is based on the precept that a combination of strict
limits on how covered entities can use and disclose protected health
information, adequate notice to individuals about how their information
will be used, and guaranteeing individuals' rights to inspect, copy and
amend their health records will provide patients with better privacy
protection and more effective control over their information than
alternative approaches to privacy protection.
This section addresses the requirements that we are proposing when
protected health information is disclosed pursuant to the individual's
explicit authorization. The regulation would require that covered
entities have authorization from individuals before using or disclosing
their protected health information for any purpose not otherwise
recognized by this regulation. Circumstances where an individual's
protected health information could be used or disclosed without
authorization are discussed in connection with proposed Secs. 164.510
and 164.522 below.
This section proposes different conditions governing such
authorizations in two situations in which individuals commonly
authorize covered entities to disclose information:
Where the individual initiates the authorization because
he or she wants a covered entity to disclose his or her record, and
Where a covered entity asks an individual to authorize it
to disclose or use information for purposes other than treatment,
payment or health care operations.
The requirements proposed in this section are not intended to
interfere with normal uses and disclosures of information in the health
care delivery or payment process, but only to allow control of uses
extraneous to health care. The restrictions on disclosure that the
regulation would apply to covered entities may mean that some existing
uses and disclosures of information could take place only if the
individual explicitly authorized them under this section.
We considered requiring a uniform set of requirements for all
authorizations, but concluded that it would be appropriate to treat
authorizations initiated by the individual differently from
authorizations sought by covered entities. There are fundamental
differences, in the uses of information and in the relationships and
understandings among the parties, in these two situations. When
individuals initiate authorizations, they are more likely to understand
the purpose of the release and to benefit themselves from the use or
disclosure. When a covered entity asks the individual to authorize
disclosure, we believe the entity should make clear what the
information will be used for, what the individual's rights are, and how
the covered entity would benefit from the requested disclosure.
We are proposing several requirements that would have to be met in
the authorization process when the individual has initiated the
authorization. We understand that the requirements that we are imposing
here would make it quite unlikely that an individual could actually
initiate a completed authorization, because few individuals would know
to include all of these elements in a request for information. In most
instances, individuals authorize a use or disclosure by completing a
form provided by a third party, either the ultimate recipient of the
information (who may have a form authorizing them to obtain the records
from the record holders) or a health care provider or health plan
holding the records (who may have a form that documents a request for
the release of records to a third party). For this reason, we do not
believe that our proposal would create substantial new burdens on
individuals or covered entities in cases when an individual is
initiating an authorized release of information. We invite comment on
whether we are placing new burdens on individuals or covered entities.
We also invite comment on whether the approach that we have proposed
provides sufficient protection to individuals who seek to have their
protected health information used or disclosed.
We are proposing that when covered entities initiate the
authorization by asking individuals to authorize disclosure, the
authorization be required to include all of the items required above as
well as several additional items. We are proposing additional
[[Page 60027]]
requirements when covered entities initiate the request for
authorization, because in many cases it could be the covered entity,
and not the individual, that achieves the primary benefit of the
disclosure. We considered permitting covered entities to request
authorizations with only the basic features proposed for authorizations
initiated by the individual, for the sake of simplicity and
consistency. However, we believe that additional protections are
merited when the entity that provides or pays for health care requests
authorizations to avert possible coercion.
We also acknowledge that there will be costs related to moving away
from a blanket authorization system. These costs will be discussed more
explicitly in the sections on allowable disclosures (both with and
without authorization).
Covered entities and third parties that wish to have information
disclosed to them will prepare forms for individuals to use to
authorize use or disclosure. A model authorization form is displayed in
Appendix A to this proposed rule. We considered presenting separate
model forms for the two different types of authorizations (initiated by
the individual and not initiated by the individual). However, this
approach could be subject to misuse and be confusing to covered
entities and individuals, who may be unclear as to which form is
appropriate in specific situations. The model in the appendix
accordingly is a unitary model, which includes all of the requirements
for both types of authorization. By following such a model, covered
entities, particularly small entities, could avoid the legal and
administrative expenses that would be necessary to develop an
authorization form that complies with the rule's requirements. The
proposed rule does not prevent entities from developing or modifying
their own authorization forms. The alternative to providing this model
was to simply state that an authorization would be required and allow
entities to develop the authorization independently. While we would
specify some information required in the authorization in this
alternative, we would not give an actual form. This was considered to
be an unnecessary burden for entities.
Finally, we are proposing that an individual be permitted to revoke
an authorization at any time except to the extent that action has been
taken in reliance on the authorization. See proposed Sec. 164.508(e).
9. Uses and Disclosures Permitted Without Individual Authorization
(Sec. 164.510)
This section describes uses and disclosures of protected health
information that covered entities could make for purposes other than
treatment, payment, and health care operations without individual
authorization, and the conditions under which such uses and disclosures
could be made. We propose to allow covered entities to use or disclose
protected health information without individual authorization for such
purposes if the use or disclosure would comply with the applicable
requirements of this section.
Covered entities could need to reevaluate and modify their
operating procedures to comply with the proposed rule's prohibition on
disclosing individually identifiable health information without patient
authorization for any purpose other than treatment, payment, health
care operations, or those situations explicitly identified as
permissible disclosures under this proposed rule. Many entities could
already do this. Entities that do not do this would need to alter
information management systems and implement administrative policies
and procedures to prevent inappropriate disclosures. Entities would
also have to determine whether or not an authorization is necessary for
each disclosure beyond treatment, payment, and health care operations
that is not explicitly defined as a permissible disclosure under this
proposed rule. It should be noted that the minimum necessary principle
is an important component of the costs related to any disclosure. We
expect that there would be significant initial and ongoing costs.
If an entity chooses to disclose protected health information
without authorization from individuals, there would be a number of new
provisions that it would have to comply with. For example, if a
disclosure is to researchers outside of the organization, the entity
must obtain written documentation indicating that the research has been
approved by an institutional review board (IRB) or equivalent process
by a privacy board. This requirement is associated with ongoing
administrative costs. We note that any such costs are optional unless
other requirements (state laws, mandatory reporting systems, etc.)
mandate these disclosures. In order to minimize the burden of these
costs for mandatory disclosures, we have tried to apply as few business
partner requirements as possible in areas where these mandatory
disclosures are possible. However, in cases where the disclosure is
optional, entities would have higher costs if they choose to use these
disclosures. We expect that entities would consider these costs before
making any such disclosure and determine if the benefits to their
business of disclosure are greater than the costs related to making the
disclosure. Additionally, other than the new requirements for
disclosures for research, most of the disclosures are simply
recognizing current practices and would not require large new costs.
We considered permitting uses and disclosures only where law
affirmatively requires the covered entity to use or disclose protected
health information. However, because the activities described below are
so important to the population as a whole, we decided to permit a
covered entity to use or disclose information to promote those
activities even when such activities are not legally mandated. In some
cases, however, we would permit a use or disclosure only when such use
or disclosure is authorized by other law. The requirements for
verification of legal authority are discussed in section II.G.3.
Disclosures that are required by current law would only require
minimal additional costs to entities. The only cost directly
attributable to this proposed requirement would be the additional cost
of noting these disclosures on the accounting of uses and disclosures.
However, disclosures required by this proposed regulation should be
considered new costs. These mandatory disclosures would be extremely
rare. For example, we expect that the Department would limit the number
of compliance audits conducted. In these cases, some of the more
expensive activities, including the minimum necessary principle and
determining whether or not to make the disclosure, would not be
applicable.
We would restrict the discussion of discretionary disclosures to
the general principles behind such disclosures rather than a detailed
description of each allowable disclosure. More elaborate discussion of
options for individual classes of disclosures can be found in the
preamble. These disclosures are optional disclosures and therefore, any
costs related to making these disclosures would incur optional costs.
We do not have a complete understanding of how often these disclosures
are currently made, nor do we understand what procedures are currently
in place. We also do not understand how often these disclosures would
be made given the new costs associated with such disclosures. Note
[[Page 60028]]
that the degree of new costs imposed if an entity opts to use a
disclosure varies dramatically depending on the type of disclosure. For
example, a disclosure of directory information in a hospital would
probably not involve significant additional costs, while research that
is not subject to the common could would have significant new costs
involved. These disclosures, and thus these costs, are optional under
this proposed rule. While they may be mandated under other law, such
mandated disclosures are already being made, so there would be no
additional costs. In this case there are only marginal new costs
related to these disclosures.
10. Clearinghouses and the Rights of Individuals
The rights described below would apply with respect to protected
health information held by health care providers and health plans. We
are proposing that clearinghouses not be subject to all of these
requirements. We believe that as business partners of covered plans and
providers, clearinghouses would not usually initiate or maintain direct
relationships with individuals. The contractual relationship between a
clearinghouse (as a business partner) and a covered plan or provider
would bind the clearinghouse to the notice of information practices
developed by the plan or provider and it would include specific
provisions regarding inspection, copying, amendment and correction.
Therefore, we do not believe that clearinghouses should be required to
provide a notice or provide access for inspection, copying, amendment
or correction. We would require clearinghouses to provide an accounting
of any disclosures for purposes other than treatment, payment and
health care operations to individuals upon request. See proposed
Sec. 164.515. It is our understanding that the vast majority of the
clearinghouse function falls within the scope of treatment, payment,
and health care operations and therefore we do not believe providing
this important right to individuals would impose a significant burden
on the industry. We invite comment on whether or not we should require
clearinghouses to comply with all of the provisions of the individual
rights section.
11. Rights and Procedures for a Written Notice of Information Practices
(Sec. 164.512)
We are proposing that individuals have a right to an adequate
notice of the information practices of covered plans and providers. The
notice would be intended to inform individuals about what is done with
their protected health information and about any rights they may have
with respect to that information. Federal agencies must adhere to a
similar notice requirement pursuant to the Privacy Act of 1974 (5
U.S.C. 552a(e)(3)).
We are not proposing that business partners (including health care
clearinghouses) be required to develop a notice of information
practices because, under this proposed rule, they would be bound by the
information practices of the health plan or health care provider with
whom they are contracting.
The rule requires covered entities to prepare and make available a
notice that informs patients about their privacy rights and the
entity's actions to protect privacy. Entities that do not already
comply with the rule's requirements would incur one-time legal and
administrative costs in preparing and making the notice available. In
addition, plans would incur ongoing costs related to the dissemination
of the notice at least once every three years, and all covered entities
would have ongoing costs related to preparation of new notices as
disclosure practices change, dissemination to new individuals who
receive services, and requests for copies of the notice. Entities would
also incur ongoing costs related to answering questions stemming from
the notice. In addition to requiring a basic notice, we considered
requiring a longer more detailed notice, that would be available to
individuals on request. However, we decided that making information
available on request, and letting the covered entity decide how best to
provide such information, is a more balanced approach. We felt that it
would be overly burdensome to all entities, especially small entities,
to require two notices.
We considered requiring covered plans or providers to obtain a
signed copy of the notice form (or some other signed indication of
receipt) when they give the form to individuals. There are advantages
to including such a requirement. A signed acknowledgment would provide
evidence that the notice form has been provided to the individual.
Further, the request to the individual to formally acknowledge receipt
would highlight the importance of the notice, providing additional
encouragement for the individual to read it and ask questions about its
content.
We are concerned, however, that requiring a signed acknowledgment
would significantly increase the administrative and paperwork burden of
this provision. We also are unsure of the best way for health plans to
obtain a signed acknowledgment because plans often do not have face-to-
face contact with enrollees. It may be possible to collect an
acknowledgment at initial enrollment, for example by adding an
additional acknowledgment to the enrollment form, but it is less clear
how to obtain it when the form is revised. We solicit comment on
whether we should require a signed acknowledgment. Comments that
address the relative advantages and burdens of such a provision would
be most useful. We also solicit comment on the best way to obtain
signed acknowledgments from health plans if such a provision is
included in the final rule. We also solicit comments on other
strategies, not involving signed acknowledgments, to ensure that
individuals are effectively informed about the information practices of
covered plans or providers.
We believe that the proposed rule appropriately balances a
patient's need for information and assurances regarding privacy with
the covered entities' need for flexibility in describing their
operations and procedures to protect patient privacy. Instead of a
model notice, we have included a sample notice to guide the development
of notices. We felt that this would be an appropriate way to reduce the
burden on all entities including those classified as small.
In Sec. 164.512, we propose the categories of information that
would be required in each notice of information practices, the specific
types of information that would have to be included in each category,
and general guidance as to the presentation of written materials. A
sample notice is provided at Appendix A of this preamble.
In a separate section of this proposed rule, we would require
covered plans or providers to develop and document policies and
procedures relating to use, disclosure, and access to protected health
information. See proposed Sec. 164.520. We intend for the documentation
of policies and procedures to be a tool for educating the entity's
personnel about its policies and procedures. In addition, the
documentation would be the primary source of information for the notice
of information practices. We intend for the notice to be a tool for
educating individuals served by the covered plan or provider about the
information practices of that entity. The information contained in the
notice would not be as comprehensive as the documentation, but rather
would provide a clear and concise summary of relevant policies and
procedures.
[[Page 60029]]
We considered prescribing specific language that each covered plan
or provider would include in its notice. The advantages of this
approach would be that the recipient would get exactly the same
information from each covered plan or provider in the same format, and
that it would be convenient for covered plans or providers to use a
uniform model notice.
There are, however, several disadvantages to this approach. First,
and most important, no model notice could fully capture the information
practices of every covered plan or provider. Large entities would have
different information practices than small entities. Some health care
providers, for example academic teaching hospitals, may routinely
disclose identifiable health information for research purposes. Other
health care providers may rarely or never make such disclosures. To be
useful to individuals, each entity's notice of information practices
should reflect its unique privacy practices.
Another disadvantage of prescribing specific language is that it
would limit each covered plan or provider's ability to distinguish
itself in the area of privacy protections. We believe that if
information on privacy protections were readily available, individuals
might compare and select plans or providers based on their information
practices. In addition, a uniform model notice could easily become
outdated. As new communication methods or technologies are introduced,
the content of the notices might need to reflect those changes.
In proposed Sec. 164.512, we would require each covered plan and
provider to include in the notice an explanation of how it uses and
discloses protected health information. The explanation must be
provided in sufficient detail as to put the individual on notice of the
uses and disclosures expected to be made of his or her protected health
information. As explained above in section II.C.7, covered plans and
providers may only use and disclose protected health information for
purposes stated in this notice.
We considered requiring the notice to include not only a discussion
of the actual disclosure practices of the covered entity, but also a
listing or discussion of all additional disclosures that are authorized
by law. We considered this approach because, under this proposed rule,
covered plans or providers would be permitted to change their
information practices at any time, and therefore individuals would not
be able to rely on the entity's current policies alone to understand
how their protected health information may be used in the future. We
recognize that in order to be fully informed, individuals need to
understand when their information could be disclosed.
We rejected this approach because we were concerned that a notice
with such a large amount of information could be burdensome to both the
individuals receiving the notices and the entities required to prepare
and distribute them. There are a substantial number of required and
permitted disclosures under State or other applicable law, and this
rule generally would permit them to be made.
Alternatively, we considered requiring that the notice include all
of the types of permissible disclosures under this rule (e.g., public
health, research, next-of-kin). We rejected that approach for two
reasons. First, we felt that providing people with notice of the
intended or likely disclosures of their protected health information
was more useful than describing all of the potential types of
disclosures. Second, in many States and localities, different laws may
affect the permissible disclosures that an entity may make, in which
case a notice only discussing permissible disclosures under the federal
rule would be misleading. While it would be possible to require covered
plans or providers to develop notices that discuss or list disclosures
that would be permissible under this rule and other law, we were
concerned that such a notice may be very complicated because of the
need to discuss the interplay of federal, State or other law for each
type of permissible disclosure. We invite comments on the best approach
to provide most useful information to the individuals without
overburdening either covered plans or providers or the recipients of
the notices.
In Sec. 164.520, we are proposing to require all covered entities
to develop and document policies and procedures for the use of
protected health information. The notice would simply summarize those
documented policies and procedures and therefore would entail little
additional burden.
It is critical to the effectiveness of this proposed rule that
individuals be given the notice often enough to remind them of their
rights, but without overburdening covered plans or providers. We
propose that all covered plans and providers would be required to make
their notice available to any individual upon request, regardless of
whether the requestor is already a patient or enrollee. We believe that
broad availability would encourage individuals or organizations to
compare the privacy practices of plans or providers to assist in making
enrollment or treatment choices. We also propose additional
distribution requirements for updating notices, which would be
different for health plans and health care providers. The requirements
for health plans and health care providers are different because we
recognize that they have contact with individuals at different points
in time in the health care system.
We considered a variety of combinations of distribution practices
for health plans and are proposing what we believe is the most
reasonable approach. We would require health plans to distribute the
notice by the effective date of the final rule, at enrollment, within
60 days of a material change to the plan's information practices, and
at least once every three years.
We considered requiring health plans to post the notice either in
addition to or instead of distribution. Because most individuals rarely
visit the office of their health plan, we do not believe that this
would be an effective means of communication. We also considered either
requiring distribution of the notice more or less frequently than every
three years. As compared to most health care providers, we believe that
health plans often are larger and have existing administrative systems
to cost effectively provide notification to individuals. Three years
was chosen as a compromise between the importance of reminding
individuals of their plans' information practices and the need to keep
the burden on health plans to the minimum necessary to achieve this
objective. We are soliciting comment on whether requiring a notice
every three years is reasonable for health plans.
We propose to require that covered health care providers provide a
copy of the notice to every individual served at the time of first
service delivery, that they post the notice in a clear and prominent
location where it is reasonable to expect individuals seeking service
from the provider to be able to read the notice, and that copies be
available on-site for individuals to take with them. In addition, we
propose to require that covered health care providers provide a copy of
the notice to individuals they are currently serving at their first
instances of service delivery within a year of the effective date of
the final rule.
We would not require providers to mail or otherwise disseminate
their notices after giving the notice to individuals at the time of the
first service delivery. Providers' patient lists may include
individuals they have not
[[Page 60030]]
served in decades. It would be difficult for providers to distinguish
between ``active'' patients, those who are seen rarely, and those who
have moved to different providers. While some individuals would
continue to be concerned with the information practices of providers
who treated them in the distant past, overall the burden of an active
distribution requirement would not be outweighed by improved individual
control and privacy protection.
If a provider wishes to make a material change in the information
practices addressed in the notice, it would be required to revise its
notice in advance. After making the revision, the provider would be
required to post the new notice promptly. We believe that this approach
creates the minimum burden for providers consistent with giving
individuals a clear source of accurate information.
12. Rights and Procedures for Access for Inspection and Copying
(Sec. 164.514)
In Sec. 164.514, we are proposing that, with very limited
exceptions, individuals have a right to inspect and copy protected
health information about them maintained by a covered health plan or
health care provider in a designated record set. Individuals would also
have a right of access to protected health information in a designated
record set that is maintained by a business partner of a covered plan
or provider when such information is not a duplicate of the information
held by the plan or provider, including when the business partner is
the only holder of the information or when the business partner has
materially altered the protected health information that has been
provided to it.
In Sec. 164.506(e), we are proposing that covered plans and
providers include specific terms in their contract with each business
partner. One of the required terms would be that the business partner
must provide for inspection and copying of protected health information
as provided in this section. Because our authority is limited by HIPAA
to the covered entities, we must rely upon covered plans and providers
to ensure that all of the necessary protected health information
provided by the individual to the plan or provider is available for
inspection and copying. We would require covered plans and providers to
provide access to information held in the custody of a business partner
when it is different from information maintained by the covered plan or
provider. We identified two instances where this seemed appropriate:
when the protected health information is only in the custody of a
business partner and not in the custody of the covered plan or
provider; and when protected health information has been materially
altered by a business partner. We are soliciting comment on whether
there are other instances where access should be provided to protected
health information in the custody of a business partner.
Other than in their capacity as business partners, we are not
proposing to require clearinghouses to provide access for inspection
and copying. As explained above in section II.C.5, clearinghouses would
usually be business partners under this proposed rule and therefore
they would be bound by the contract with the covered plan or provider.
See proposed Sec. 164.506(e). We carefully considered whether to
require clearinghouses to provide access for inspection and copying
above and beyond their obligations as a business partner, but
determined that the typical clearinghouse activities of translating
record formats and batching transmissions do not involve setting up
designated record sets on individuals. Although the data maintained by
the clearinghouse is protected health information, it is normally not
accessed by individual identifier and an individual's records could not
be found except at great expense. In addition, although clearinghouses
process protected health information and discover errors, they do not
create the data and make no changes in the original data. They,
instead, refer the errors back to the source for correction. Thus,
individual access to clearinghouse records provides no new information
to the individual but could impose a significant burden on the
industry.
We are proposing that covered plans and providers be required to
provide access for as long as the entity maintains the protected health
information. We considered requiring covered plans and providers to
provide access for a specific period or defining a specific retention
period. We rejected that approach because many laws and professional
standards already designate specific retention periods and we did not
want to create unnecessary confusion. In addition, we concluded that
individuals should be permitted to have access for as long as the
information is maintained by the covered plan or provider. We are
soliciting comments on whether we should include a specific duration
requirement in this proposed rule.
Proposed Sec. 164.514 would permit denial of inspection and copying
under very limited circumstances. The categories of denials would not
be mandatory; the entity could always elect to provide all of the
requested health information to the individual. For each request by an
individual, the entity could provide all of the information requested
or it could evaluate the requested information, consider the
circumstances surrounding the individual's request, and make a
determination as to whether that request should be granted or denied.
We intend to create narrow exceptions to the stated rule of open access
and we would expect covered plans and providers to employ these
exceptions rarely, if at all.
We considered whether entities should be permitted to deny access
to information based on a number of factors. For more specific
discussion of access denials, please refer to earlier preamble text.
For the purposes of the economic impacts, it is important to note that
these denials are optional and, therefore, any costs associated with
utilizing these denials are optional.
In Sec. 164.514(c) and (d), we are proposing that covered plans and
providers be required to have procedures that enable individuals to
exercise their rights to inspect and obtain a copy of protected health
information as explained above.
We considered whether this proposed rule should include detailed
procedures governing a individual's request for inspection and copying.
Because this proposed rule would affect such a wide range of entities,
we concluded that it should only provide general guidelines and that
each entity should have the discretion to develop procedures consistent
with its own size, systems, and operations.
In Sec. 164.514(d)(2), we are proposing that the covered plans and
providers would take action upon the request as soon as possible but
not later than 30 days following receipt of the request. We considered
the possibility of not including a time limitation but rather imposing
a ``reasonableness'' requirement on the covered plans or providers. We
concluded that the individual is entitled to know when to expect a
response. This is particularly important in the context of health
information, where an individual could need access to his or her
information in order to make decisions about care. Therefore, in order
to determine what would be ``reasonable,'' we examined the time
limitations provided in the Privacy Act, the Freedom of Information Act
(FOIA), and several State laws.
The Privacy Act requires that upon receipt of a request for
amendment (not access), the agency would send an acknowledgment to the
individual
[[Page 60031]]
within 10 working days. (5 U.S.C. 552a (d)(2)). We considered several
options that included such an acknowledgment requirement. An
acknowledgment would be valuable because it would assure the individual
that their request was received. Despite the potential value of
requiring an acknowledgment, we concluded that it could impose a
significant administrative burden on some of the covered plans and
providers. This proposed rule would cover a wide range of entities with
varying capacities and therefore, we are reluctant to create
requirements that would overwhelm smaller entities or interfere too
much with procedures already in place. We would encourage plans and
providers to have an acknowledgment procedure in place, but would not
require it at this point. We are soliciting comment on whether this
proposed rule should require such an acknowledgment.
We also considered whether to include specific procedures governing
``urgent'' or ``emergency'' requests. Such procedures would require
covered plans and providers to respond in a shorter time frame. We
recognize that circumstances could arise where an individual would
request inspection and copying on an expedited basis and we encourage
covered plans or providers to have procedures in place for handling
such requests. We are not proposing additional regulatory time
limitations to govern in those circumstances. The 30-day time
limitation is intended to be an outside deadline, rather than an
expectation. Rather, we would expect a plan or provider to always be
attentive to the circumstances surrounding each request and respond in
an appropriate time frame, not to exceed 30 days.
Finally, we considered including a section governing when and how
an entity could have an extension for responding to a request for
inspection and copying. For example, the FOIA provides that an agency
could request additional time to respond to a request if the agency
needs to search for and collect the requested records from facilities
that are separate from the office processing the request; to search
for, collect, and appropriately examine a voluminous amount of separate
and distinct records; and to consult with another entity or component
having a substantial interest in the determination of the request. We
determined that the criteria established in the FOIA are tailored to
government information systems and therefore could not be appropriate
for plans and providers covered by this proposed rule. Furthermore, we
determined that the 30-day time period would be sufficient for
responding to requests for inspection and copying and that extensions
should not be necessary. We are soliciting comments on whether a
structured extension procedure should be included in this proposed
rule.
In Sec. 164.514(d)(3), we are proposing that covered plans or
providers be required to notify the individual of the decision to
provide access and of any steps necessary to fulfill the request. In
addition we propose that the entity provide the information requested
in the form or format requested if it is readily producible in such
form or format. Finally, if the covered plan or provider accepts an
individual's request, it would be required to facilitate the process of
inspection and copying.
In proposed Sec. 164.514(d)(3)(iv), we would permit a covered plan
or provider to charge a reasonable, cost-based fee for copying health
information provided pursuant to this section. We considered whether we
should follow the practice in the FOIA and include a structured fee
schedule. We concluded that the FOIA was developed to reflect the
relatively uniform government costs and that this proposed rule would
apply to a broader range of entities. Depending on the size of the
entity, copying costs could vary significantly. Therefore, we propose
that the entity simply charge a reasonable, cost-based fee.
In Sec. 164.514(d)(4), we propose that a covered plan or provider
that denies an individual's request for inspection and copying in whole
or in part be required to provide the individual with a written
statement in plain language explaining the reason for the denial. The
statement could include a direct reference to the section of the
regulation relied upon for the denial, but the regulatory citation
alone would not sufficiently explain the reason for the denial. The
statement would need to include the name and number of the contact
person or office within the entity who is responsible for receiving
complaints. In addition, the statement would need to include
information regarding the submission of a complaint with the Department
pursuant to Sec. 164.522(b).
We considered proposing that covered plans and providers provide a
mechanism for appealing a denial of inspection and copying. We believe,
however, that the requirement proposed in Sec. 164.518(d) that covered
plans and providers have complaint procedures to address patient and
enrollee privacy issues generally would allow the individual to raise
the issue of a denial with the covered plan or provider. We would
expect the complaint procedures to be scalable; for example, a large
plan might develop a standard complaint process in each location where
it operates whereas, a small practice might simply refer the original
request and denial to the clinician in charge for review. We would
encourage covered plans and providers to institute a system of appeals,
but would not require it by regulation. In addition, the individual
would be permitted to file a complaint with the Department pursuant to
Sec. 164.522(b).
13. Rights and Procedures With Respect to an Accounting of Disclosures
(Sec. 164.515)
In this proposed rule, we propose that individuals have a right to
receive an accounting of all instances where protected health
information about them is disclosed by a covered entity for purposes
other than treatment, payment, and health care operations, subject to
certain time-limited exceptions for disclosures to law enforcement and
oversight agencies as discussed below. Providing such an accounting
would allow individuals to understand how their health information is
shared beyond the basic purposes of treatment, payment and health care
operations.
We considered whether to require covered entities to account for
all disclosures, including those for treatment, payment and health care
operations. We rejected this approach because it would be burdensome
and because it would not focus on the disclosures of most interest to
individuals. Upon entering the health care system, individuals are
generally aware that their information would be used and shared for the
purpose of treatment, payment and health care operations. They have the
greatest interest in an accounting of circumstances where the
information was disclosed for other purposes that are less easy to
anticipate. For example, an individual might not anticipate that his or
her information would be shared with a university for a research
project, or would be requested by a law enforcement agency.
We are not proposing that covered entities include uses and
disclosures for treatment, payment and health care operations in the
accounting. We believe that it is appropriate for covered entities to
monitor all uses and disclosures for treatment, payment and health care
operations, and they would be required to do so for electronically
maintained information by the Security Standard. However, we do not
believe that covered entities should be required to provide an
accounting of the uses and disclosures for treatment payment and health
care operations.
[[Page 60032]]
This proposed rule would not specify a particular form or format
for the accounting. In order to satisfy the accounting requirement, a
covered entity could elect to maintain a systematic log of disclosures
or it could elect to rely upon detailed record keeping that would
permit the entity to readily reconstruct the history when it receives a
request from an individual. We would require that covered entities be
able to respond to a request for accounting within a reasonable time
period. In developing the form or format of the accounting, covered
entities should adopt policies and procedures that would permit them to
respond to requests within the 30-day time period in this proposed
rule.
We also considered whether or not the disclosure history should be
a formal document that is constantly maintained or whether we should
give more flexibility to entities in this regard. We decided that since
our ultimate goal is that individuals have access to a disclosure
history of their records upon request, it would be reasonable to
require only that they be able to do this. We are not prescribing how
they fulfill the requirement. We also believe that it is less
burdensome to require that they be able to create a disclosure history
than to require that they have a specific format for maintaining a
disclosure history.
We are proposing that the accounting include all disclosures for
purposes other than treatment, payment, and health care operations,
subject to certain exceptions for disclosures to law enforcement and
oversight agencies, discussed below. This would also include
disclosures that are authorized by the individual. The accounting would
include the date of each disclosure; the name and address of the
organization or person who received the protected health information;
and a brief description of the information disclosed. For all
disclosures that are authorized by the individual, we are proposing
that the covered entity maintain a copy of the authorization form and
make it available to the individual with the accounting.
We considered whether the accounting of disclosures should include
the name of the person who authorized the disclosure of information.
The proposed Security Standard would require covered entities to have
an audit mechanism in place to monitor access by employees. We
concluded that it would be unnecessary and inappropriate to require the
covered entity to include this additional information in the
accounting. If the individual identifies an improper disclosure by an
entity, he or she should hold the entity not the employee of the entity
accountable. It is the responsibility of the entity to train its
workforce about its policies and procedures for the disclosure of
protected health information and to impose sanctions if such policies
and procedures are violated.
14. Rights and Procedures for Amendment and Correction (Sec. 164.516)
This proposed rule would provide an individual with the right to
request a covered plan or provider to amend or correct protected health
information relating to the individual. A covered plan or provider
would be required to accommodate requests with respect to any
information that the covered plan or provider determines to be
erroneous or incomplete, that was created by the plan or provider, and
that would be available for inspection and copying under proposed
Sec. 164.514.
We are concerned about the burden that requests for amendment or
correction could place on covered plans and providers and have tried to
limit the process to those situations where amendment or correction
would appear to be most important. We invite comment on whether our
approach reasonably balances burden with adequately protecting
individual interests.
We propose to require a covered plan or provider to accommodate a
request for amendment or correction if the plan or provider created the
information in dispute. We considered requiring covered plans and
providers to amend or correct any erroneous or incomplete information
it maintains, regardless of whether it created the information. Under
this approach, if the plan or provider did not create the information,
then it would have been required to trace the information back to the
original source to determine accuracy and completeness. We rejected
this option because we concluded that it would not be appropriate to
require the plan or provider that receives a request to be responsible
for verifying the accuracy or completeness of information that it did
not create. We also were concerned about the burden that would be
imposed on covered plans and providers if they were required to trace
the source of any erroneous or incomplete information transmitted to
them.
We would rely on a combination of three other requirements to
ensure that protected health information remains as accurate as
possible as it travels through the health care system. First, we are
proposing that a covered plan or provider that makes an amendment or
correction be required to notify any relevant persons, organizations,
or other entities of the change or addition. Second, we are proposing
that other covered plans or providers that receive such a notification
be required to incorporate the necessary amendment or correction.
Finally, we are proposing that covered plans or providers require their
business partners who receive such notifications to incorporate any
necessary amendments or corrections. See the discussion in section
II.F.4. We are soliciting comments whether this approach would
effectively ensure that amendments and corrections are communicated
appropriately.
We are proposing that covered plans and providers be required to
accommodate requests for amendment or correction for as long as the
entity maintains the protected health information. We considered
requiring covered plans and providers to accommodate requests for a
specific period or defining a specific retention period. We rejected
that approach because many laws and professional standards already
designate specific retention periods and we did not want to create
confusion. In addition, we concluded that individuals should be
permitted to request amendments or corrections for as long as the
information is maintained by the covered plan or provider. We are
soliciting comments on whether we should include a specific duration
requirement in this proposed rule.
In Sec. 164.516, we are proposing that covered plans and providers
be required to have procedures that enable individuals to exercise
their rights to request amendment or correction, including a means by
which individuals could request amendment or correction of protected
health information about them. We considered whether this proposed rule
should include detailed procedures governing an individual's request.
But as with the procedures for requesting inspection and copying, we
are only providing a general requirement and permitting each plan or
provider to develop procedures in accordance with its needs. Once the
procedures are developed, the plan or provider would document them in
accordance with section Sec. 164.520 and include a brief explanation in
the notice that is provided to individuals pursuant to section
Sec. 164.512.
We are proposing that the covered plan or provider would take
action on a request for amendment or correction as quickly as the
circumstances require, but not later than 60 days following the
[[Page 60033]]
request. The justification for establishing a time limitation for
amendment and correction is virtually identical to that provided for
the time limitation for inspection and copying. We concluded that the
entity should be provided with some additional flexibility in this
context. Depending on the nature of the request, an amendment or
correction could require significantly more time than a request for
inspection and copying. If a covered plan or provider needed more than
30 days to make a decision, we would encourage, but not require, it to
send an acknowledgment of receipt to the individual including an
explanation of the reasons for the delay and a date when the individual
could expect a final decision.
In Sec. 164.516(c)(3), we are proposing that, upon accepting an
amendment or correction, the covered plan or provider would be required
to make reasonable efforts to notify relevant persons, organizations,
or other entities of the change or addition. An entity would be
required to notify such persons that the individual identifies, or that
the covered plan or provider identifies as (1) a recipient of the
erroneous or incomplete information, and (2) a person who:
Has relied upon that information to the detriment of the
individual; or
Is a person who could foreseeably rely on such erroneous
or incomplete information to the detriment of the individual.
We are concerned about the potential burden that this notification
requirement would impose on covered plans and providers. We do not,
however, anticipate that a significant number of requests would be
submitted to any entity and therefore the need for such notifications
would be rare. In addition, we determined that because health
information can travel so quickly and efficiently in the modern health
care system, the need for notification outweighed the potential burden.
It is important to note that a reasonableness standard should be
applied to the notification process--if the recipient has not relied
upon the erroneous or incomplete information to the detriment of the
individual or if it is not foreseeable that the recipient would do so,
then it would not be reasonable for the covered plan or provider to
incur the time and expense of notification. If, however, if the
incorrect information is reasonably likely to be used to the detriment
of the individual, the entity should make every effort to notify the
recipients of the information of the changes as quickly as possible.
We discussed a number of options regarding the notification of
other entities. We considered only requiring that the entity provide
the individual with a listing of who else could have received the
information. This would place the burden of notification in the hands
of the individual rather than the entity. Because individuals would not
have the same contacts and relationship with other entities as the
original covered entity, we decided that placing the burden on
individuals would be more cumbersome for both individuals and the
secondary entities receiving the requests. We also considered not
including a notification requirement. However, this would mean that
individuals would need to both figure out where the information had
gone to and make separate requests for amendment or correction to every
entity. This also appeared to be overly difficult. We believe that the
option we are proposing is fair to both individuals and covered
entities.
In proposed Sec. 164.516(c)(4), we would require a covered plan or
provider to provide the individual with a written statement in plain
language of the reason for the denial and permit the individual to file
a written statement of disagreement with the decision to deny the
request.
If the individual chooses to file a statement of disagreement, then
the covered plan or provider must retain a copy of the statement with
the protected health information in dispute. The covered plan or
provider could require that the statement be a reasonable length,
provided that the individual has reasonable opportunity to state the
nature of the disagreement and offer his or her version of accurate and
complete information. In all subsequent disclosures of the information
requested to be amended or corrected, the covered plan or provider
would be required to include a copy of its statement of the basis for
denial and, if provided by the individual, a copy of his or her
statement of disagreement. If the statement submitted by the individual
is unreasonably long, the covered plan or provider could include a
summary in subsequent disclosures which reasonably explains the basis
of the individual's position. The covered plan or provider would also
be permitted to provide a rebuttal to the individual's statement of
disagreement and include the rebuttal statement in any subsequent
disclosures.
We considered requiring the covered plan or provider to provide a
mechanism for appealing denials of amendment or correction but
concluded that it would be too burdensome. We are soliciting comment on
whether the approach we have adopted reasonably balances the burdens on
covered plans or providers with the rights of individuals.
If a covered plan or provider receives a notification of erroneous
or incomplete protected health information as provided in proposed
Sec. 164.516(d), we are proposing that the covered plan or provider or
be required to make the necessary amendment or correction to protected
health information in its custody that would be available for
inspection and copying. This affirmative duty to incorporate amendments
and corrections would be necessary to ensure that individuals'
protected health information is as accurate and complete as possible as
it travels through the health care system.
15. Administrative Requirements (Sec. 164.518)
We propose that covered entities be required to implement five
basic administrative requirements to safeguard protected health
information: Designation of a privacy official, the provision of
privacy training, establishment of safeguards, a complaint process, and
establishment of sanctions. Implementation of these requirements would
vary depending on a variety of different factors such as type of entity
(e.g., provider or plan), size of entity (e.g., number of employees,
number of patients), the level of automation within the entity (e.g.,
electronic medical records), and organization of the entity (e.g.,
existence of an office of information systems, affiliation with a
medical school).
a. Designation of a Privacy Official (Sec. 164.518(a))
In proposed Sec. 164.518(a), we would require covered entities to
designate an employee or other person to serve as the official
responsible for the development of policies and procedures for the use
and disclosure of protected health information. The designation of an
official would focus the responsibility for development of privacy
policy.
We considered whether covered entities should be required to
designate a single official or an entire board. We concluded that a
single official would better serve the purposes of focusing the
responsibility and providing accountability within the entity. The
implementation of this requirement would depend on the size of the
entity. For example, a small physician's practice might designate the
office manager as the privacy official, and he or she would assume this
as one of his or her broader administrative responsibilities. A large
entity might appoint a person whose sole
[[Page 60034]]
responsibility is privacy policy, and he or she might choose to convene
a committee representing several different components of the entity to
develop and implement privacy policy.
b. Training (Sec. 164.518(b))
In proposed Sec. 164.518(b), we would require covered entities to
provide training on the entities policies and procedures with respect
to protected health information. Each entity would be required to
provide initial training by the date on which this proposed rule
becomes applicable. After that date, each covered entity would have to
provide training to new members of the workforce within a reasonable
time period after joining the entity. In addition, we are proposing
that when a covered entity makes material changes in its privacy
policies or procedures, it would be required to retrain those members
of the workforce whose duties are directly affected by the change
within a reasonable time of making the change.
The entities would be required to train all members of the
workforce (e.g., all employees, volunteers, trainees, and other persons
under the direct control of all persons working on behalf of the
covered entity on an unpaid basis who are not business partners) who
are likely to have contact with protected health information.
Upon completion of the training, the person would be required to
sign a statement certifying that he or she received the privacy
training and would honor all of the entity's privacy policies and
procedures. Entities would determine the most effective means of
communicating with their workforce. For example, in a small physician
practice, the training requirement could be satisfied by providing each
new member of the workforce with a copy of the practice's information
policies and requiring members of the workforce to acknowledge that
they have reviewed the policies. A large health plan could provide for
a training program with live instruction, video presentations or
interactive software programs. The small physician practice's solution
would not protect the large plan's data, and the plan's solution would
be neither economically feasible nor necessary for the small physician
practice.
At least once every three years after the initial training, covered
entities would be required to have each member of the workforce sign a
new statement certifying that he or she would honor all of the entity's
privacy policies and procedures. The initial certification would be
intended to make members of the workforce aware of their duty to adhere
to the entity's policies and procedures. By requiring a recertification
every three years, they would be reminded of this duty.
We considered several different options for recertification. We
considered proposing that members of the workforce be required to
recertify every six months, but concluded that such a requirement would
be too burdensome. We considered proposing that recertification be
required annually consistent with the recommendations of The American
Health Information Management Association (Brandt, Mary D., Release and
Disclosure: Guidelines Regarding Maintenance and Disclosure of Health
Information, 1997). We concluded that annual recertification could also
impose a significant burden on covered entities.
We also considered requiring that the covered entity provide
``refresher'' training every three years in addition to the
recertification. We concluded that our goals could be achieved by only
requiring recertification once every three years, and retraining in the
event of material changes in policy. We are soliciting comment on this
approach.
c. Safeguards (Sec. 164.518(c))
In proposed Sec. 164.518(c), we would require covered entities to
put in place administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to
protect against any reasonably anticipated threats or hazards to the
privacy of the information, and unauthorized uses or disclosures of the
information. We proposed similar requirements for certain electronic
information in the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking entitled the Security
and Electronic Signature Standards (HCFA-0049-P), which can be found at
63 FR 43241. We are proposing parallel and consistent requirements for
safeguarding the privacy of protected health information.
i. Verification procedures.
As noted in section II.E., for many permitted disclosures the
covered entity would be responding to a request for disclosure of
protected health information. For most categories of permitted
disclosures, when the request for disclosure of protected health
information is from a person with whom the covered entity does not
routinely do business, we would require the covered entity to verify
the identity of the requestor. In addition, for certain categories of
disclosures, covered entities would also be required to verify the
requestor's legal authority to make the request.
Under Sec. 164.514, a covered entity would be required to give
individuals access to protected health information about them (under
most circumstances). The covered entity would also be required to take
reasonable steps to verify the identity of the individual making the
request for access. We do not propose to mandate particular
identification requirements (e.g., drivers licence, photo ID, etc), but
rather would leave this to the discretion of the covered entity.
We considered specifying the type of documentation or proof that
would be acceptable, but decided that the burden of such specific
regulatory requirements on covered entities would be unnecessary.
Therefore, we propose only a general requirement for reasonable
verification of identity and legal authority.
d. Internal Complaint Process (Sec. 164.518(d))
In proposed Sec. 164.518(d), we would require covered plans and
providers to have some mechanism for receiving complaints from
individuals regarding the covered plan's or provider's compliance with
the requirements of this proposed rule. The covered plan or provider
would be required to accept complaints about any aspect of their
practices regarding protected health information. We would not require
that the entity develop a formal appeals mechanism, nor that ``due
process'' or any similar standard be applied. We would not require that
covered entities respond in any particular manner or time frame. We are
proposing two basic requirements for the complaint process. First, the
covered plan or provider would be required to identify a contact person
or office in the notice of information practices for receiving
complaints. This person or office could either be responsible for
handling the complaints or could put the individual in touch with the
appropriate person within the entity to handle the particular
complaint. See proposed Sec. 164.512. This person could, but would not
have to be, the entity's privacy official. See proposed
Sec. 164.518(a)(2). Second, the covered plan or provider would be
required to maintain a record of the complaints that are filed and a
brief explanation of the resolution, if any.
We considered requiring covered plans and providers to provide a
formal internal appeal mechanism, but rejected that option as too
costly and burdensome for some entities. We also considered eliminating
this requirement entirely, but rejected that option because a complaint
process would give covered plans or providers a way to learn about
potential problems with privacy policies or practices, or training
[[Page 60035]]
issues. We also hope that providing an avenue for covered plans or
providers to address complaints would lead to increased consumer
satisfaction. We believe this approach strikes a reasonable balance
between allowing covered plans or providers flexibility and
accomplishing the goal of promoting attention to improvement in privacy
practices. If an individual and a covered plan or provider are able to
resolve the individual's complaint, there could be no need for the
individual to file a complaint with the Secretary under proposed
Sec. 164.522(b). However, an individual has the right to file a
complaint with the Secretary at any time. An individual could file a
complaint with the Secretary before, during, after, or concurrent with
filing a complaint with the covered plan or provider or without filing
a complaint with the covered plan or provider.
We are considering whether modifications of these complaint
procedures for intelligence community agencies could be necessary to
address the handling of classified information and solicit comment on
the issue.
e. Sanctions (Sec. 164.518(e))
In proposed Sec. 164.518(e), we would require all covered entities
to develop and apply when appropriate sanctions for failure to comply
with policies or procedures of the covered entity or with the
requirements of this proposed rule. All members of the workforce who
have regular contact with protected health information should be
subject to sanctions, as would the entity's business partners. Covered
entities would be required to develop and impose sanctions appropriate
to the nature of the issue. The type of sanction applied would vary
depending on factors such as the severity of the violation, whether the
violation was intentional or unintentional, and whether the violation
indicates a pattern or practice of improper use or disclosure of
protected health information. Sanctions could range from a warning to
termination.
We considered specifying particular sanctions for particular kinds
of violations of privacy policy, but rejected this approach for several
reasons. First, the appropriate sanction would vary with the entity's
particular policies. Because we cannot anticipate every kind of privacy
policy in advance, we cannot predict the response that would be
appropriate when that policy is violated. In addition, it is important
to allow covered entities to develop the sanctions policies appropriate
to their business and operations.
We expect that sanctions would be more formally described and
consistently carried out in larger, more sophisticated entities.
Smaller, less sophisticated entities would be given more latitude and
flexibility. For such smaller entities and less sophisticated entities,
we would not expect a prescribed sanctions policy, but would expect
that actions be taken if repeated instances of violations occur.
f. Sanctions (Sec. 164.518(f))
We propose in Sec. 164.518(f) that covered entities be required to
have procedures for mitigating, to the extent practicable, any
deleterious effect of a use or disclosure of protected health
information by their members of their workforce or business partners.
With respect to business partners, we also propose that covered
entities have an affirmative duty to take reasonable steps in response
to breaches of contract terms.
16. Development and Documentation of Policies and Procedures
(Sec. 164.520)
In proposed Sec. 164.520, we would require covered entities to
develop and document their policies and procedures for implementing the
requirements of this proposed rule. This requirement is intended as a
tool to facilitate covered entities' efforts to develop appropriate
policies to implement this proposed rule, to ensure that the members of
its workforce and business partners understand and carry out expected
privacy practices, and to assist covered entities in developing a
notice of information practices.
The scale of the policies developed should be consistent with the
size of the covered entity. For example, a smaller employer could
develop policies restricting access to health plan information to one
designated employee, empowering that employee to deny release of the
information to corporate executives and managers unless required for
health plan administration. Larger employers could have policies that
include using contractors for any function that requires access to
protected health information or requiring all reports they receive for
plan administration to be de-identified unless individual authorization
is obtained.
We are proposing general guidelines for covered entities to develop
and document their own policies and procedures. We considered a more
uniform, prescriptive approach but concluded that a single approach
would be neither effective in safeguarding protected health information
nor appropriate given the vast differences among covered entities in
size, business practices and level of sophistication. It is important
that each covered entity's internal policies and procedures for
implementing the requirements of this regulation are tailored to the
nature and number of its business arrangements, the size of its patient
population, its physical plant and computer system, the size and
characteristics of its workforce, whether it has one or many locations,
and similar factors. The internal policies and procedures appropriate
for a clearinghouse would not be appropriate for a physician practice;
the internal policies and procedures appropriate for a large, multi-
state health plan would not be appropriate for a smaller, local health
plan.
After evaluating the requirements of federal, State, or other
applicable laws, covered entities should develop policies and
procedures that are appropriate for their size, type, structure, and
business arrangements. Once a covered plan or provider has developed
and documented all of the policies and procedures as required in this
section, it would have compiled all of the information needed to
develop the notice of information practices required in Sec. 164.512.
The notice is intended to include a clear and concise summary of many
of the policies and procedures discussed in this section. Further, if
an individual has any questions about the entity's privacy policies
that are not addressed by the notice, a representative of the entity
could easily refer to the documented policies and procedures for
additional information.
Before making a material change in a policy or procedure, the
covered entity would, in most instances, be required to make the
appropriate changes to the documentation required by this section
before implementing the change. In addition, covered plans and
providers would be required to revise their notice of information
practices in advance. Where the covered entity determines that a
compelling reason exists to take an action that is inconsistent with
its documentation or notice before making the necessary changes, it
could take such action if it documents the reasons supporting the
action and makes the necessary changes within 30 days of taking such
action.
In an attempt to ensure that large entities develop coordinated and
comprehensive policies and procedures as required by this section, we
considered proposing that entities with annual receipts greater than $5
[[Page 60036]]
million \40\ be required to have a privacy board review and approve the
documentation of policies and procedures. As originally conceived, the
privacy board would only serve to review research protocols as
described in Sec. 164.510(j). We believe that such a board could also
serve as ``privacy experts'' for the covered entity and could review
the entity's documented policies and procedures. In this capacity, the
overriding objective of the board would be to foster development of up-
to-date, individualized policies that enable the organization to
protect health information without unnecessarily interfering with the
treatment and payment functions or business needs. This type of review
is particularly important for large entities who would have to
coordinate policies and procedures among a large staff, but smaller
organizations would be encouraged, but not required, to take a similar
approach (i.e., have a widely representative group participate in the
development and/or review of the organization's internal privacy
policies and the documentation thereof). We solicit comment on this
proposal.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\40\ The Small Business Administration defines small businesses
in the health care field as those generating less than $5 million
annually. Small businesses represent approximately 85% of health
care entities.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
We also considered requiring the covered entity to make its
documentation available to persons outside the entity upon request. We
rejected this approach because covered entities should not be required
to share their operating procedures with the public, or with their
competitors.
We recognize that the documentation requirement in this proposed
rule would impose some paperwork burden on covered plans and providers.
However, we believe that it is necessary to ensure that covered plans
and providers establish privacy policies and procedures in advance of
any requests for disclosure, authorization, or subject access. It is
also necessary to ensure that covered entities and members of their
workforce have a clear understanding of the permissible uses and
disclosures of protected health information and their duty to protect
the privacy of such information under specific circumstances.
17. Compliance and Enforcement
The rules proposed below at Sec. 164.522 would establish several
requirements designed to enable the Secretary to monitor and seek to
ensure compliance with the provisions of this subpart. The general
philosophy of this section is to provide a cooperative approach to
obtaining compliance, including use of technical assistance and
informal means to resolve disputes. However, in recognition of the fact
that it would not always be possible to achieve compliance through
cooperation, the section also would provide the Secretary with tools
for carrying out her statutory mandate to achieve compliance.
Proposed Sec. 164.522(a) would establish the principle that the
Secretary would seek the cooperation of covered entities in obtaining
compliance. Section 164.522(a)(2) provides that the Secretary could
provide technical assistance to covered entities to help them come into
compliance with this subpart. It is clearly in the interests of both
the covered entities and the individuals they serve to minimize the
costs of compliance with the privacy standards. To the extent that the
Department could facilitate this by providing technical assistance, it
would endeavor to do so.
V. Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis
A. Introduction
Pursuant to the Regulatory Flexibility Act 5 U.S.C. 601 et. seq.,
HHS must prepare a regulatory flexibility analysis if the Secretary
certifies that a proposed rule would have a significant economic impact
on a substantial number of small entities.
This analysis addresses six issues: (1) Reasons for promulgating
the rule; (2) the proposed rule's objectives and legal basis; (3) the
number and types of small entities affected by the proposed rule; (4)
the specific activities and costs associated with compliance; (5)
options that HHS considered to minimize the rule's economic burdens or
increase its benefits for small entities; and (6) the relevant Federal
rules that could duplicate, overlap, or conflict with the proposed
rule. The following sections provide details on each of these issues.
Reasons for Promulgating the Rule
This proposed rule is being promulgated primarily because we have
been statutorily mandated to do so under section 264 of Public Law 104-
191. Additional information on the reasons for promulgating the rule
can be found in earlier preamble discussions (section I.).
Objectives and Legal Basis
This information can be found in earlier preamble discussions
(section I.).
Relevant Federal Provisions
This information can be found in earlier preamble discussions
(section I.B.)
B. Economic Effects on Small Entities
1. Number and Types of Small Entities Affected
The Small Business Administration defines small entities in the
health care sector as those organizations with less than $5 million in
annual revenues. \41\ Nonprofit organizations are also considered small
entities; however, individuals and States are not included in the
definition of a small entity. Similarly, small government jurisdictions
with a population of less than 50,000 are considered small entities.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\41\ We have used two different data sources for our estimates
of the number of entities. In the regulatory impact analysis (RIA),
we chose to use the same numbers as we used in other Administrative
Simplification rules. In the regulatory flexibility analysis (RFA),
we used the most recent data available from the Small Business
Administration (SBA).
We chose to use the Administrative Simplification estimates in
the RIA because we wanted our analysis to be as consistent as
possible with those regulations and also believe that because it is
higher than the more recent SBA data, it was the more conservative
data source.
We chose to use the SBA data in the RFA because we wanted our
analysis to be as consistent to SBA definitions as possible to give
the greatest accuracy for the RFA purposes.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Small health entities affected include: Nonprofit health plans,
hospitals, and skilled nursing facilities (SNFs); small businesses
providing health coverage; small physician practices; pharmacies;
laboratories; and durable medical equipment (DME) suppliers; health
care clearinghouses; billing companies; and vendors that supply
software applications to health care entities.
The U.S. Small Business Administration reports that as of 1996,
there were 1,078,020 small health care establishments \42\ classified
within the SIC codes we have designated (Table A).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\42\ Establishments are the physical location where an
enterprise conducts business. An entrprise may conduct business in
more than one establishment.
[[Page 60037]]
Table A.--Number of Health Care Entities That Meet SBA Size Standards, 1996 \1\
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total Number of Percent of
Number of Entities that Entities that
Standard Industrial Code (SIC) Industry Health Care Meet SBA Size Meet SBA Size
Entities Standards \2\ Standards \2\
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5910................................... Drug Stores & Proprietary 44,062 23,771 53.9
Stores.
6320................................... Accident & Health 3,346 428 12.8
Insurance & Medical
Service Plans (Accident &
Health Insurance and
Hospital & Medical
Service Plans).
8010................................... Offices & Clinics of 188,508 171,750 91.1
Doctors of Medicine.
8020................................... Offices & Clinics of 113,965 113,141 99.3
Dentists.
8030................................... Offices & Clinics of 9,168 9,000 98.2
Doctors of Osteopathy.
8040................................... Offices & Clinics of Other 85,326 83,563 97.9
Health Practitioners.
8050................................... Nursing & Personal Care 24,246 11,736 48.4
Facilities.
8060................................... Hospitals................. 7,284 837 11.5
8070................................... Medical & Dental 15,354 12,322 80.3
Laboratories.
8080................................... Home Health Care Services. 16,218 9,238 57.0
8090................................... Miscellaneous Health & 20,986 12,712 60.6
Allied Services.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
N/A.................................... Total..................... 528,463 448,498 84.9
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Source: Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Administration, from data provided by the Bureau of the
Census, Statistics of U.S. Businesses, 1996.
\2\ Less than $5,000,000 in annual revenue.
These small businesses represent 83.8% of all health care entities
we have examined.\43\ Small businesses represent a significant portion
of the total number of health care entities but a small portion of the
revenue stream for all health care entities. In 1996, the small
businesses represented generated approximately $235 million in annual
receipts, or 22.2% of the total revenue generated by small health care
entities (Table B). \44\ The following sections provide estimates of
the number of small health care entities that will be required to
comply with the rule. We should note, however, that the SBA's published
annual receipts of health care industries differs substantially from
the National health expenditure data that the Health Care Finance
Administration (HCFA) maintains. HCFA's data are generally considered
more accurate because the data are validated by several sources.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\43\ Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Administration,
from data provided by the Bureau of the Census, Statistics of U.S.
Businesses, 1996.
\44\ Op. cit. 1996
Table B.--Annual Receipts of Health Care Entities, 1996 \1\
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Revenue Percent of
generated by total revenue
Standard Industrial Code (SIC) Industry Total revenue small entities generated by
\2\ small entities
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5910.................................. Drug Stores & $91,701,331 $23,762,195 25.9
Proprietary Stores.
6320.................................. Accident & Health 225,866,321 657,074 0.3
Insurance & Medical
Service Plans (Accident
& Health Insurance and
Hospital & Medical
Service Plans).
8010.................................. Offices & Clinics of 186,598,097 102,355,549 54.9
Doctors of Medicine.
8020.................................. Offices & Clinics of 46,131,244 44,811,866 97.1
Dentists.
8030.................................. Offices & Clinics of 4,582,835 3,992,558 87.1
Doctors Of Osteopathy.
8040.................................. Offices & Clinics of 25,053,745 21,891,338 87.4
Other Health
Practitioners.
Other Health 29,636,580 25,883,896 87.3
Practitioners (8030 and
8040).
8050.................................. Nursing & Personal Care 63,625,522 14,672,710 23.1
Facilities.
8060.................................. Hospitals............... 343,314,509 2,021,845 0.6
8070.................................. Medical & Dental 16,543,625 4,976,094 30.1
Laboratories.
8080.................................. Home Health Care 27,690,537 7,960,035 28.7
Services.
8090.................................. Miscellaneous Health & 26,036,633 7,697,264 29.6
Allied Services.
[[Page 60038]]
Other Health Care 70,270,795 20,633,393 29.4
Services
(8070,8080,8090).
-----------------------------------------------
N/A................................... Total Receipts.......... 1,057,144,399 234,798,528 22.2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Source: Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Administration, from data provided by the Bureau of the
Census, Statistics of U.S. Businesses, 1996.
\2\ The SBA defines a small business as those businesses with less than $5,000,000 in annual revenue. For
consistency with the Regulation, we employ the term ``entity'' in place of ``business''.
The Small Business Administration reports that approximately 80
percent of the 15,000 medical laboratories and dental laboratories in
the U.S. are small entities.\45\ Furthermore, based on HCFA data, we
estimate that 98 percent of the 160,000 durable medical equipment
suppliers in the U.S. are small entities. Over 90 percent of health
practitioner offices are small businesses.\46\ Doctor offices (91%),
dentist offices (99%), osteopathy (98%) and other health practitioner
offices (98%) are primarily considered small businesses.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\45\ Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Administration,
from data provided by the Bureau of the Census, Statistics of U.S.
Businesses, 1996.
\46\ Op.cit., 1996
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are also a small number of hospitals, home health agencies,
non-profit nursing facilities, and skilled nursing facilities that will
be affected by the proposed rule. According to the American Hospital
Association, there are approximately 3,131 nonprofit hospitals
nationwide. Additionally, there are 2,788 nonprofit home health
agencies in the U.S. The Health Care Finance Administration reports
that there are 591 nonprofit nursing facilities and 4,280 nonprofit
skilled nursing facilities.\47\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\47\ Health Care Finance Administration, OSCAR
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
While it is difficult to calculate the number of clearinghouses
that meet the definition of a small business, we believe that a
significant portion of the 80 health care clearinghouses that process
health care claims in the U.S. have annual revenues of less than $5
million annually.\48\ We believe that all of the 4,500 billing
companies \49\ that provide administrative and billing services for
physicians' offices have annual revenues below $5 million per year.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\48\ Faulkner & Gray's Health Data Directory, 1999
\49\ International Billing Association, 1999
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Some contractors that work with health care entities will be
required to adopt policies and procedures to protect information. We do
not expect that the additional burden placed on contractors will be
significant. We have not estimated the effect of the proposed rule on
these entities because we cannot reasonably anticipate the number or
type of contracts affected by the proposed rule. We also do not know
the extent to which contractors would be required to modify their
policy practices as a result of the rule's implementation.
2. Activities and Costs Associated with Compliance
For a summary of the basic activities that a small entity would
need to do to comply with this rule, please refer to section III of the
preamble. This discussion summarizes some of the specific activities
that covered entities must undertake to comply with the proposed rule's
provisions and options considered that would reduce the burden to small
entities. In developing this proposed rule, we considered a variety of
alternatives for minimizing the economic burden that it will create for
small entities. We could not exempt small businesses from the entire
proposed rule because they represent such a large and critical
proportion of the health care industry (84 percent).
The guiding principle in our considerations of how to address the
burden on small entities has been to make provisions scalable. To the
extent possible, we have allowed for entities to determine how
extensively they will address certain issues. This ability to adapt
provisions to minimize burden has been addressed in earlier preamble
language and will be briefly discussed again in the following section.
Before discussing specific provisions, it is important to note some
of the broader questions that were addressed in formulating this
proposed rule. We considered extending the compliance period for small
entities but decided that because they represent such a large portion
of the health care market, such an extension would be inappropriate.
However, HIPAA does create an extended compliance time of 36 months for
small plans. For all other time limit questions, we also considered
giving small entities the same sort of extensions. For example,
entities are required to either approve or deny a request to inspect
and copy information within 20 days. We considered allowing small
entities a longer response time. Rather than giving small entities
extensions, we decided to establish time limits that we believe are
reasonable for affected entities of all sizes, with the understanding
that larger entities may not need as much time as they have been
allocated in certain situations.
While we considered the needs of small entities during our
discussions of provisions for this proposed rule, we are highlighting
the most significant discussions in the following sections:
a. Scalability. Covered entities of all types and sizes would be
required to comply with the proposed privacy standards outlined below.
The proposed standards would not impose particular mechanisms or
procedures that covered entities must adopt to implement the standards.
Instead, we would require that each affected entity assess its own
needs and devise, implement, and maintain appropriate privacy policies,
procedures, and documentation to address its business requirements. How
each privacy standard would be satisfied would be business decisions
that each entity would have to make. This allows the privacy standards
to establish a stable baseline, yet remain flexible enough to take
advantage of developments and methods for protecting privacy that will
evolve over time.
Because the privacy standards would need to be implemented by all
covered entities, from the smallest provider to the largest, multi-
state health plan, a single approach to implementing these standards
would be neither economically feasible nor effective in safeguarding
health information privacy. For example, in a small physician practice
the office manager might be designated to serve as the privacy official
as one of many duties (see proposed Sec. 164.518(a)) whereas at a large
health plan, the privacy official may constitute a full time position
and
[[Page 60039]]
have the regular support and advice of a privacy staff or board.
In taking this approach, we intend to strike a balance between the
need to maintain the confidentiality of protected health information
and the economic cost of doing so. Health care entities must consider
both aspects in devising their solutions. This approach is similar to
the approach we proposed in the Notice of Proposed Rulemaking for the
administrative simplification security and electronic signature
standards.
We decided to use this scaled approach to minimize the burden on
all entities with an emphasis on small entities.
b. Minimum necessary use and disclosure. The decisions called for
in determining what would be the minimum necessary information to
accomplish an allowable purpose should include both a respect for the
privacy rights of the subjects of the medical record and the reasonable
ability of covered entities to delimit the amount of individually
identifiable health information in otherwise permitted uses and
disclosures. For example, a large enterprise that makes frequent
electronic disclosures of similar data would be expected to remove
identifiers or to limit the data fields that are disclosed to fit the
purpose of the disclosure. An individual physician's office would not
be expected to have the same capabilities to limit the amount of
information disclosed, although, in the cases of disclosures involving
a small number of records, such an office could be expected to hide
identifiers or to limit disclosures to certain pages of the medical
record that are relevant to the purpose of the disclosure.
We understand that the requirements outlined in this section do not
create a bright line test for determining the minimum necessary amount
of protected health information appropriate for most uses or
disclosures. Because of this lack of precision, we considered
eliminating the requirement altogether. We also considered merely
requiring covered entities to address the concept within their internal
privacy procedures, with no further guidance as to how each covered
entity would address the issue. These approaches were rejected because
minimizing both the amount of protected health information used and
disclosed within the health care system and the number of persons who
have access to such information is vital if we are to successfully
enhance the confidentiality of people's personal health information. We
invite comments on the approach that we have adopted and on alternative
methods of implementing the minimum necessary principle.
c. Right to restrict. We propose to permit in Sec. 164.506(c) that
individuals be able to request that a covered entity restrict further
uses and disclosures of protected health information for treatment,
payment, or health care operations, and if the covered entity agrees to
the requested restrictions, the covered entity may not make uses or
disclosures for treatment, payment or health care operations that are
inconsistent with such restrictions, unless such uses or disclosures
are mandated by law. This provision would not apply to health care
provided to an individual on an emergency basis.
It should be noted that there is nothing in this proposed rule that
requires a health care provider to agree to a request to restrict uses
or disclosures for treatment, payment, or health care operations.
Providers who do not wish to, or due to contractual obligations cannot,
restrict further use or disclosure are not obligated to treat an
individual making a request under this provision.
If small entities view this proposed provision as overly
burdensome, they would not have to provide treatment to individuals
requesting restrictions. We considered requiring that providers conform
to requests to restrict use or disclosures. We rejected this approach
due to the potential ethical conflicts these restrictions could pose to
health care professionals and the possible burden to providers.
Providers comprise a large proportion of the small businesses covered
under this proposed regulation.
d. Creation of de-identified information. In this rule we are
proposing that covered entities and their business partners be
permitted to use protected health information to create de-identified
health information. Covered entities would be permitted to further use
and disclose such de-identified information in any way, provided that
they do not disclose the key or other mechanism that would enable the
information to be re-identified, and provided that they reasonably
believe that such use or disclosure of de-identified information will
not result in the use or disclosure of protected health information.
This means that a covered entity could not disclose de-identified
information to a person if the covered entity reasonably believes that
the person would be able to re-identify some or all of that
information, unless disclosure of protected health information to such
person would be permitted under this proposed rule. In addition, a
covered entity could not use or disclose the key to coded identifiers
if this rule would not permit the use or disclosure of the identified
information to which the key pertains. If a covered entity re-
identifies the de-identified information, it may only use or disclose
the re-identified information consistent with these proposed rules, as
if it were the original protected health information. See proposed
Sec. 164.506(d)(1).
As with other components of this proposed rule, removal of
identifiers from data could be scaled. Small entities without the
resources to determine at what point information is truly de-identified
could remove the full list of possible identifiers listed in this
regulation. Unless they have reason to believe that the information
could still be linked to an individual, this proposed requirement would
be fulfilled. However, larger, more sophisticated entities, could
choose to determine independently what information needs to be removed.
Furthermore, efforts to remove identifiers from information would
be optional. If an entity believes that removing identifiers would be
excessively burdensome, it could choose not to release the information
or to obtain an authorization from individuals before releasing any
information.
e. Uses and disclosures with individual authorization. Covered
entities must obtain individual authorization to use protected health
information for purposes other than those allowed under the proposed
rule. Activities requiring authorization would include, for example,
marketing and eligibility determinations for health coverage or
employment. Costs would be ongoing for staffing and administrative
activities related to obtaining authorization from individuals.
In establishing the requirement for covered entities to obtain
patient authorization to use individually identifiable health
information for purposes other than those allowed under the proposed
rule, we decided to include in the proposed rule a model ``request for
authorization.'' By following such a model, covered entities,
particularly small entities, could avoid the legal and administrative
expenses that would be necessary to develop an authorization form that
complies with the proposed rule's standards. The proposed rule would
not prevent entities from developing their own patient authorization
forms or from modifying existing forms in a manner consistent with the
model.
[[Page 60040]]
The alternative to providing this model would be to state that an
authorization would be required and allow entities to develop the
authorization. We believe that providing no guidance in this area would
have caused unnecessary difficulties and burdens for small entities.
f. Uses and disclosures permitted without authorization. This
proposed rule would not require any uses or authorizations other than
to the subject individual and to the Secretary for compliance. If small
entities believe that the costs of making such discretionary
disclosures are considered too high, they could choose not to make such
disclosures. We would allow all covered entities, but particularly
small entities, to base their decisions about these disclosures on any
criteria that they believe to be important. We expect that the
additional costs related to these disclosures would be factored into
their decisions.
In cases where uses or disclosures without authorization are
required by other law, we would attempt to minimize costs by not
requiring application of the minimum necessary principle.
g. Notice to individuals of rights and procedures. The proposed
rule would require covered entities to prepare and make available a
notice that informs patients about their privacy rights and the
entity's actions to protect privacy. Entities that do not already
comply with the proposed rule's requirements would incur one-time legal
and administrative costs. In addition, plans would incur ongoing costs
related to the dissemination of the notice at least once every three
years, and all covered entities would have ongoing costs related to
dissemination to new individuals requesting services and requests for
copies of the notice. Entities would also incur ongoing costs related
to answering questions that are associated with the notice.
In discussing the requirement for covered entities to prepare and
make available a notice regarding patient privacy rights and the
entity's privacy practices, we considered exempting small businesses.
Because this would exempt 84 percent of firms, we decided not to create
this exemption. The second option would be to exempt extremely small
entities. One discussion defined small entities as those with fewer
than 10 employees. We decided that informing consumers of their privacy
rights and of the activities of covered entities with which they
conduct business was too important to exempt any entities.
In addition to requiring a basic notice, we considered requiring a
longer more detailed notice that would be available to individuals on
request. However, we decided that making information available on
request and allowing the covered entity to decide how best to provide
such information represents a more balanced approach. We believe that
it would be overly burdensome to all entities, especially small
entities, to require two notices.
We considered prescribing specific language that each covered plan
or provider would include in its notice. The advantages of this
approach would be that the recipient would receive exactly the same
information from each covered plan or provider in the same format and
that it would be convenient for covered entities to use a uniform model
notice.
There are, however, several disadvantages to this approach. First,
and most importantly, no model notice could fully capture the
information practices of every covered plan or provider. Large entities
will have information practices different from those of small entities.
Some health care providers, for example, academic teaching hospitals,
might routinely disclose identifiable health information for research
purposes. Other health care providers might rarely or never make such
disclosures. To be useful to individuals, each entity's notice of
information practices should reflect its unique privacy practices.
Another disadvantage of prescribing specific language is that it
would limit each covered plan or provider's ability to distinguish
itself in the area of privacy protections. We believe that if
information on privacy protections becomes readily available,
individuals might compare and select plans or providers based on their
information practices. In addition, a uniform model notice could easily
become outdated. As new communication methods or technologies are
introduced, the content of the notices might need to reflect those
changes.
We believe that the proposed rule appropriately balances a
patient's need for information and assurances regarding privacy with
the covered entities' need for flexibility in describing their
operations and procedures to protect patient privacy. Instead of a
model notice, we have included a sample notice to guide the development
of notices. We believe that this is an appropriate way to reduce the
burden on all entities including those classified as small.
h. Administrative requirements for covered entities. We propose
that covered entities be required to implement five basic
administrative requirements to safeguard protected health information:
designation of a privacy official, the provision of privacy training,
establishment of safeguards, a complaint process, and establishment of
sanctions. Implementation of these requirements would vary depending on
a variety of different factors such as type of entity (e.g., provider
or plan), size of entity (e.g., number of employees, number of
patients), the level of automation within the entity (e.g., electronic
medical records), and organization of the entity (e.g., existence of an
office of information systems, affiliation with a medical school).
In proposed Sec. 164.518(a), we would require covered plans and
providers to designate a privacy official to be responsible for the
development of policies for the use and disclosure of protected health
information and for the supervision of personnel with respect to use
and disclosure of protected health information. The designation of a
privacy official would focus the responsibility for development of
privacy policy.
The implementation of this requirement would depend on the size of
the entity. For example, a small physician's practice might designate
the office manager as the privacy official, and he or she would assume
this as one of his or her broader administrative responsibilities. A
large entity might appoint an individual whose sole responsibility is
privacy policy, and that individual could choose to convene a committee
representing several different components of the entity to develop and
implement privacy policy.
In proposed Sec. 164.518(b), we would require covered entities to
provide training on the their policies and procedures with respect to
protected health information. Entities would determine the most
effective means of communicating with their workforce. For example, in
a small physician practice, the training requirement could be satisfied
by providing each new member of the workforce with a copy of the
practice's information policies and requiring members of the workforce
to acknowledge that they have reviewed the policies. A large health
plan could provide for a training program with live instruction, video
presentations or interactive software programs. The small physician
practice's solution would not protect the large plan's data, and the
plan's solution would be neither economically feasible nor necessary
for the small physician practice.
In proposed Sec. 164.518(c), we would require covered entities to
put in place
[[Page 60041]]
administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to protect against
any reasonably anticipated threats or hazards to the privacy of the
information, and unauthorized uses or disclosures of the information.
In proposed Sec. 164.518(d), we would require covered plans and
providers to have some mechanism for receiving complaints from
individuals regarding the covered plan's or provider's compliance with
the requirements of this proposed rule. We considered requiring covered
plans and providers to provide a formal internal appeal mechanism, but
rejected that option as too costly and burdensome for some entities. We
also considered eliminating this requirement entirely, but rejected
that option because a complaint process would give covered plans or
providers a way to learn about potential problems with privacy policies
or practices, or training issues. We also hope that providing an avenue
for covered plans or providers to address complaints would lead to
increased consumer satisfaction. We believe this approach strikes a
reasonable balance between allowing covered plans or providers
flexibility and accomplishing the goal of promoting attention to
improvement in privacy practices.
We expect that sanctions would be more formally described and
consistently carried out in larger, more sophisticated entities.
Smaller, less sophisticated entities would be given more latitude and
flexibility. For such smaller entities and less sophisticated entities,
we would not expect a prescribed sanctions policy, but would expect
that actions be taken if repeated instances of violations occur. In
proposed Sec. 164.518(e), we would require all covered entities to
develop and apply when appropriate sanctions for failure to comply with
policies or procedures of the covered entity or with the requirements
of this proposed rule.
i. Documentation requirements for covered entities. We are
proposing that covered entities be required to document policies and
procedures in several important areas. These areas would include use
within the entity; informing business partners; disclosures with and
without authorization; limitations on use and disclosure for self-pay;
inspection and copying; amendment or correction; accounting for uses
and disclosures; notice development, maintenance, and dissemination;
sanctions; and complaint procedures. We considered whether formal
documentation of these policies would be necessary. A key factor in
making this decision was determining the burden on entities,
particularly the burden on small entities. We also considered whether
it would be reasonable to exempt very small entities from this
provision. For example, entities with fewer than ten employees could be
able to effectively communicate policies and procedures verbally. We
decided that we needed to include all entities in the provision because
these documentation requirements are intended as tools to educate the
management, employees, and business partners about the consideration
that should be given to protecting the privacy of health information.
3. The Burden on a Typical Small Business.
We expect that small entities will face a cost burden as a result
of complying with the proposed regulation. We estimate that the burden
of developing privacy policies and procedures is lower in dollar terms
for small businesses than for large businesses, but we recognize that
the cost of implementing privacy provisions will be a larger burden to
small entities as a proportion of total revenue. Due to these concerns,
we rely on the principle of scalability stated in the proposed rule,
and have based our cost estimates on the expectation that small
entities will develop less expensive and less complex privacy measures
than large entities.
In many cases, we have specifically considered the impact that the
proposed rule may have on solo practitioners or rural providers. Where
these providers do not have large technical systems, it is possible
that the regulation may not apply to small providers, or that small
providers will not be required to change their business practices other
than adhering to the basic requirements that they state their privacy
policies and notify patients of their privacy rights. For both
activities, the proposed regulation accounts for the activities and
size of the practice. Scalability implies that in developing policies
and procedures to comply with the proposed regulation, businesses
should consider their basic functions and the amount of health
information exchanged electronically. All covered entities must take
appropriate steps to address privacy concerns, and in determining the
scope and extent of their compliance activities, businesses should
weigh the costs and benefits of alternative approaches and should scale
their compliance activities to their structure, functions, and
capabilities.
Our analysis of the costs to small businesses is divided into three
sections: (1) Initial start-up costs associated with development of
privacy policy; (2) initial start-up costs associated with system
change; and (3) ongoing costs, including notification of privacy
policies.
Overall, our analysis suggests that the average start-up cost of
complying with the proposed rule is $396 per entity. This includes the
cost of developing privacy policies and systems compliance changes
(Table C). The ongoing costs of privacy compliance are approximately
$337 per entity in the first year and $343 every year thereafter (Table
D). The total cost of implementing initial and ongoing costs of the
proposed regulation in the first year is $733 per entity. After the
first year, the total compliance cost to the entity is $343 per year.
We estimate that the relative average cost of initial compliance is
approximately 0.12 percent of a small entity's annual expenditures in
the first year. The relative average cost of ongoing privacy compliance
is approximately 0.05 percent of a small entity's annual expenditures.
Our cost calculations are based on several assumptions. The cost of
developing privacy policies is based on figures from the regulatory
impact analysis that accompanied the HIPAA National Provider Identifier
(63 FR 25320). The cost of initial systems compliance is based on
current assumptions about market behavior; including the assumption
that a relatively small proportion of the total cost of system
compliance (20%) will be absorbed by small covered entities. We
evaluated the ongoing costs of an entity's privacy protection by
calculating that privacy protection costs should be proportional to the
number of patients served by the business. For example, the cost of
notifying patients of privacy practices will be directly proportional
to the number of patients served. We then multiplied the proportion of
small entities by the total ongoing costs of privacy compliance.
Initial Costs
Table C shows the results of our calculations of the cost of
initial compliance. We calculated initial privacy policy costs separate
from initial system compliance costs because we made different
assumptions about the cost of each. To calculate initial privacy policy
costs per small entity, we multiplied the estimated cost of developing
privacy policies (per entity) by the number of establishments. We then
averaged these costs and computed that the average cost of developing
privacy policies is $334.31 per small entity. The average cost of
implementing privacy policies is greater
[[Page 60042]]
than the $300 cost we assume most health care provider offices will
pay, because we assume that small health plans, hospitals, and nursing
and patient care services will spend between $500-$1,000 to implement
privacy policies. Calculating the cost of system compliance per entity
required us to estimate the percent of total system costs that each
type of entity would incur. We used the $90 million figure (cited in
the RIA) as the basis for distributing system compliance costs across
various types of entities affected by the proposed rule. We estimated
how this cost would be divided between small and large entities, and
among plans, providers and clearinghouses.
Table C.--Annual Cost of Implementing Provisions of the Proposed Privacy Regulation In the First Year
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Initial costs Ongoing costs Total costs
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Annual
Initial Initial First year amendment Total Total
privacy system Notice Total notice and Annual annual annual
Industry policy compliance development initial issuance correction written ongoing initial and
costs cost cost, per compliance costs for cost to authorization cost in the ongoing
incurred by incurred by small cost, per small small cost to small first year, cost in the
small small entity small entities, entities, entities, per per small first year,
entities, entities entity \2\ per small per small small entity entity per small
per entity \1\, per entity entity entity
--------------------------------------------------entity------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drug Stores & Proprietary Stores $300 $131.19 $59.40 $490.58 $118.26 $768.64 $102.55 $989.45 $1,480.03
\3\............................
Accident & Health Insurance & 1,000 1,939.86 203.91 3,143.77 314.02 127.60 17.02 458.65 3,602.41
Medical Service Plans \3\
(Accident & Health Insurance
and Hospital & Medical Service
Plans).........................
Offices & Clinics Of Doctors Of 300 21.04 21.20 342.24 42.21 260.93 34.81 337.96 680.20
Medicine.......................
Offices & Clinics Of Dentists... 300 7.43 13.25 320.68 26.39 163.11 21.76 211.26 531.94
Offices & Clinics Of Other 300 11.10 17.82 328.92 35.47 219.29 29.26 284.02 612.94
Health Practitioners...........
Nursing & Personal Care 1,500 117.15 49.63 1,666.79 98.82 610.88 81.50 791.20 2,457.99
Facilities.....................
Hospitals....................... 1,500 7,362.22 79.65 8,941.87 158.59 980.36 130.80 1,269.75 10,211.62
Home Health Care Services....... 300 58.06 30.66 388.72 61.05 377.38 50.35 488.77 877.49
Other Health Care Services 300 19.83 10.84 330.68 21.59 133.47 17.81 172.87 503.55
including Lab Services.........
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average Cost................ 334.31 40.13 21.17 395.61 42.05 260.23 34.72 337.00 732.61
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The SBA defines small health care entities as those with annual revenue under $5,000,000.
\2\ Total Initial Compliance Cost includes policy implementation and systems compliance costs.
\3\ Includes some entities not covered by this regulation. Pharmacies are the only component of Drug Stores and Proprietary Stores covered by the
regulation. Accident and workers compensation insurance are not covered by the regulation.
Table D.--Annual Cost of Implementing Provisions of the Proposed Privacy Regulation, After the First Year
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ongoing Costs
------------------------------------------------------------------
Annual
Annual amendment Annual Total
notice and Annual ongoing annual
Industry issuance correction written costs for ongoing
costs after cost to authorization paperwork cost after
the first small cost to small and the first
year, per entities, entities, per training, year, per
small per small small entity per small small
entity entity entity entity
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drug Stores & Proprietary Stores \1\......... 73.26 768.64 102.55 20 964.45
Accident & Health Insurance & Medical Service 314.02 127.60 17.02 60 518.65
Plans \2\ (Accident & Health Insurance and
Hospital & Medical Service Plans)...........
Offices & Clinics Of Doctors Of Medicine..... 26.15 260.93 34.81 20 341.90
Offices & Clinics Of Dentists................ 16.35 163.11 21.76 20 221.22
Offices & Clinics Of Other Health 21.97 219.29 29.26 20 290.52
Practitioners...............................
Nursing & Personal Care Facilities........... 61.22 610.88 81.50 100 853.59
Hospitals.................................... 98.24 980.36 130.80 100 1,309.40
Home Health Care Services.................... 37.82 377.38 50.35 20 485.54
Other Health Care Services including Lab 13.38 133.47 17.81 20 184.65
Services....................................
------------------------------------------------------------------
Average Cost............................. 26.16 260.23 34.72 22.28 343.39
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The SBA defines small health care entities as those with annual revenue under $5,000,000.
\2\ Includes some entities not covered by this regulation. Pharmacies are the only component of Drug Stores and
Proprietary Stores covered by the regulation. Accident and workers compensation insurance are not covered by
the regulation.
Our calculations regarding division of costs are based on two
assumptions: (1) System costs are principally fixed costs associated
with the purchase of hardware and software \50\; and (2) large entities
will continue to invest more heavily in hardware and software
expenditures than small entities. We estimate that 80 percent of the
system costs will be born by large entities. The remaining 20 percent
of total systems costs will be absorbed by small entities. To calculate
the effect on small businesses, we multiplied the system compliance
costs cited in the RIA by the proportion of the costs we expect small
entities to incur (20 percent of total). We then multiplied the total
cost of system compliance for small entities by the percentage of
health care revenue by industry and calculated a cost per entity.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\50\ We are not suggesting that these investments are
exclusively computer-related. They may also include costs for
personnel training, reorganization, and contract negotiations with
outside entities.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
We used HCFA's estimate of total national health expenditures to
calculate the percent of total health care business that is represented
by types of health care entities. We calculated the proportion of
business transacted by a type of health care entity (by SIC code) and
multiplied this by the total expenditures ($1.084 billion total) \51\.
National expenditure data is a useful measure for allocating system
compliance costs for two reasons. Even though system compliance costs
are primarily fixed costs, we assume that they bear some relationship
to the size and level of the activity of the entity.
[[Page 60043]]
Similarly, national expenditures vary according to both size and level
of activity. Second, in contrast to the annual receipts compiled by the
Business Census Survey, national expenditure information compares its
data to other sources in order to validate its results. Thus, we
decided that the national expenditure data are a more reliable source
of overall business activity for our purposes. Based on these
assumptions, we believe that the total cost of system compliance for
all small health care entities will be approximately 18 million.
Dividing costs by the number of small entities suggests that the
average cost of system compliance is $40.13 per entity.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\51\ Health Care Finance Administration, 1996 http://
www.hcfa.gov/stats/nheoact/tables/t10.htm
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
The cost of notice development is approximately $21 per small
entity. We assume that many small providers will receive assistance
developing their notice policies from professional associations. Thus,
the overall cost of developing compliant notices is significant, but
the cost per entity is small. The cost to small entities of developing
notices is based on the proportion of expenditures generated by small
entities. We recognize that this may not adequately capture the costs
of developing a provider or plan's notice of their privacy policies,
and invite comment on our approach.
We added the per-entity cost of privacy policy implementation to
the cost of systems compliance to determine the total average cost of
start-up compliance. Our figures indicate that initial compliance will
cost an average of $396 per small entity. These costs vary across
entity type (Table C). For example, small hospitals have a much higher
cost of compliance than the average cost for all small entities,
whereas dentists' offices tend to have initial compliance costs that
are lower than the average for small entities. Most small practitioner
offices have low costs ($320 per dentist office), whereas small
hospitals ($8,942 per entity) and small insurance companies have much
higher costs ($3,144 per entity) than other health care entities.
Finally, we attempted to estimate the impact of compliance costs on
small entities by comparing the cost of complying with the proposed
rule to an entity's annual expenditures (Table E). We computed the
percent of small entity expenditures as a percent of national
expenditures by calculating the proportion of small business receipts
(from census data compiled for the SBA) that apply to segments of the
health care market. Although we believe that the SBA data understates
the amount of annual receipts, we assumed that the underestimates are
consistent across all entities. Thus, although the dollar amounts
reported by the SBA are incorrect, our assumption is that the
proportion of small entity receipts relative to total annual receipts
is correct.
Applying the percent of small entity receipts to the national
expenditure data allows us to estimate the percent of national
expenditures represented by small entities. We then considered the
total compliance cost (initial and ongoing cost) as a percent of small
business expenditures. Our estimates suggest that the cost of complying
with the proposed rule represent approximately 0.12 percent of total
annual expenditures for a small health care entity in the first year.
The relative cost of complying with the proposed rule is substantially
lower in subsequent years, representing 0.04 percent of an entity's
annual expenditures. The relative cost of complying with the proposed
regulation cost of complying is highest for small health insurers (1.03
percent of expenditures). These costs will be higher due to the volume
and complexity of health plan billing systems; health plans are
required to implement more policies and procedures to protect health
information because they handle so much personally identifiable
information. Because health plan costs are higher and there is a
smaller number of plans than other type of entities affected by the
regulation, these costs result in a higher annual cost per small health
plan. Table E further illustrates the cost impact by type of entity in
the first year.
Table E.--Small Entity Business Expenditures and Proportion of Annual Expenditures Represented by Initial and
Ongoing Compliance Costs in the First Year*
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compliance
Total annual cost as a
initial and Annual percentage of
Industry ongoing costs expenditure a small
in the first per small entity's
year, per entity \1\ annual
small entity expenditures
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Drug Stores & Proprietary Stores \2\............................ $1,480.03 $2,046,199 0.07
Accident & Health Insurance & Medical Service Plans \2\ 3,602.41 350,467 1.03
(Accident & Health Insurance and Hospital & Medical Service
Plans).........................................................
Offices & Clinics Of Doctors Of Medicine........................ 680.20 695,560 0.10
Offices & Clinics Of Dentists................................... 531.94 434,260 0.12
Offices & Clinics Of Other Health Practitioners................. 612.94 583,805 0.10
Nursing & Personal Care Facilities.............................. 2,457.99 1,629,755 0.15
Hospitals....................................................... 10,211.62 2,660,215 0.38
Home Health Care Services....................................... 877.49 1,003,475 0.09
Other Health Care Services including Lab Services............... 503.55 351,146 0.14
-----------------------------------------------
Average Cost................................................ 732.61 625,992 0.12
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* The SBA defines small health care entities as those with annual revenue under $5,000,000.
** Total Initial Compliance Cost includes policy implementation and systems compliance costs
\1\ Based on the assumption that the proportion of revenue generated by small businesses approximates the
proportion of expenditures faced by small businesses
\2\ Includes some entities not covered by this regulation. Pharmacies are the only component of Drug Stores and
Proprietary Stores covered by the regulation. Accident and workers compensation insurance are not covered by
the regulation.
Ongoing Costs
In this section, we evaluate the ongoing costs of providing patient
notices, the annual cost of amending and correcting medical
information, the cost of providing written authorizations, and the
ongoing cost of paperwork and training. We estimated the ongoing costs
of compliance through calculations
[[Page 60044]]
similar to those used for our systems compliance estimates. Ongoing
costs are most heavily influenced by the size of the business.
Therefore, we assume that the number of patients an entity serves is
directly proportional to its ongoing compliance costs.
We estimated market share using Small Business Administration data
estimating total receipts.\52\ We divided the small entity receipts by
total receipts and arrived at an estimate that 22 percent of the
revenue generated by the health care classifications we examined is
from small businesses. Using annual receipts to estimate cost burden is
more accurate than using information on the number of health care
entities. The size of the small entity is more likely to be correlated
with the number of patients served than the number of businesses, and
therefore, the amount of business conducted by an entity. Because it is
difficult to find a single good estimate of market share, we considered
estimating market share over a range, using the proportion of annual
receipts as a lower bound and number of entities as the higher bound.
We concluded that even if the SBA data does not capture the total
amount of health care receipts accurately, estimating market share by
examining receipts would be much more accurate than using the number of
entities.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
\52\ Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Administration,
from data provided by the Bureau of the Census, Statistics of U.S.
Businesses, 1996.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
We multiplied the percent total receipts by the total ongoing costs
(by entity type) to obtain a range of ongoing costs for small entities.
We were then able to divide these costs by the number of small entities
by type of entity. We estimated ongoing costs in the first year that
the proposed rule takes effect separately from our estimate of ongoing
cost in the following years. The estimates were approximately the same;
$337 and $343 respectively.
We estimate that the ongoing cost of compliance will be
approximately 0.05 percent of a small entity's annual expenditures.
This cost burden is fairly consistent across all types of entities.
Clearinghouses and Nonprofit Entities
We should note that the above discussion does not consider health
care clearinghouses, nonprofit hospitals, home health agencies, or
nursing and skilled nursing facilities. To the extent that
clearinghouses and nonprofit facilities have annual receipts of less
than $5 million, they were included in the preceding analysis.
Although we do not have precise information on the number of
clearinghouses that qualify as small entities under the RFA, we believe
that approximately half would meet the criteria. As noted in the
regulatory impact analysis, as long as clearinghouses perform the
function of merely reformatting information they receive and
transmitting the data to other entities, the cost of complying with the
proposed rule should be minimal.
A similar logic applies for nonprofit health plans and hospitals.
We do know how many nonprofit organizations currently exist in the
U.S., but do not have reliable revenue and expenditure data for these
entities. In the absence of such data, we assume that nonprofit
entities have a similar ratio of revenues to expenditures as the for-
profit entities we have examined. Thus, we believe that the impact of
complying with the proposed rule should be similar to that described
for-profit plans and hospitals.
The preceding analysis indicates that the expected burden on small
entities of implementing the proposed rule would be minimal. However,
by necessity, the analysis is based on average costs, and as such, they
may not reflect the actual burden on some or even a substantial number
of small entities. Therefore, the Secretary does not certify that the
proposed rule will not have a significant impact on a substantial
number of small entities.
VI. Unfunded Mandates
The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (Pub. L. 104-4) requires
cost-benefit and other analyses for rules that would cost more than
$100 million in a single year. The proposed rule qualifies as a
significant rule under the statute. DHHS has carried out the cost-
benefit analysis in sections D and E of this document, which includes a
discussion of unfunded costs to the states resulting from this
regulation.
A. Future Costs
DHHS estimates some of the future costs of the proposed rule in
Section E of the Preliminary Regulatory Impact Analysis of this
document. The reported costs include costs incurred during the
compliance period and up to 5 years after the effective date. The same
section also includes some qualitative discussion of costs that would
occur beyond that time period. Most of the costs of the proposed rule,
however, would occur in the years immediately after the publication of
a final rule. Future costs beyond the five year period will continue
but will not be as great as the initial compliance costs.
B. Particular Regions, Communities, or Industrial Sectors.
The proposed rule applies to the health care industry and would,
therefore, affect that industry disproportionately. Any long-run
increase in the costs of health care services would largely be passed
on to the entire population of consumers.
C. National Productivity and Economic Growth
The proposed rule is not expected to substantially affect
productivity or economic growth. It is possible that productivity and
growth in certain sectors of the health care industry could be slightly
lower than otherwise because of the need to divert research and
development resources to compliance activities. The diversion of
resources to compliance activities would be temporary. Moreover, DHHS
anticipates that, because the benefits of privacy are large, both
productivity and economic growth would be higher than in the absence of
the proposed rule. In section I.A. of this document, DHHS discusses its
expectation that this proposed rule would increase communication among
consumers, health plans, and providers and that implementation of
privacy protections will lead more people to seek health care. The
increased health of the population will lead to increased productivity
and economic growth.
D. Full Employment and Job Creation.
Some of the human resources devoted to delivery of health care
services would be redirected by the proposed rule. The proposed rule
could lead to some short-run changes in employment patterns as a result
of the structural changes within the health care industry. The growth
of employment (job creation) for the roles typically associated with
the health care profession could also be temporarily change but be
balanced by an increased need for those who can assist entities with
complying with this proposed rule. Therefore, while there could be a
temporary slowing of growth in traditional health care professions,
that will be offset by a temporary increase in growth in fields that
may assist with compliance with this proposed rule (e.g. legal
professionals, and management consultants).
E. Exports
Because the proposed rule does not mandate any changes in products,
current export products will not be required to change in any way.
VII. Environmental Impact
The Department has determined under 21 CFR 25.30(K) that this
action
[[Page 60045]]
is of a type that does not individually or cumulatively have a
significant effect on the human environment. Therefore, neither an
environmental assessment nor an environmental impact statement is
required.
VIII. Collection of Information Requirements
Under the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (PRA), agencies are
required to provide a 60-day notice in the Federal Register and solicit
public comment before a collection of information requirement is
submitted to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) for review and
approval. In order to fairly evaluate whether an information collection
should be approved by OMB, section 3506(c)(2)(A) of the PRA requires
that we solicit comment on the following issues:
Whether the information collection is necessary and useful
to carry out the proper functions of the agency;
The accuracy of the agency's estimate of the information
collection burden;
The quality, utility, and clarity of the information to be
collected; and
Recommendations to minimize the information collection
burden on the affected public, including automated collection
techniques.
Under the PRA, the time, effort, and financial resources necessary
to meet the information collection requirements referenced in this
section are to be considered. Due to the complexity of this regulation,
and to avoid redundancy of effort, we are referring readers to Section
IV (Regulatory Impact Analysis) above, to review the detailed cost
assumptions associated with these PRA requirements. We explicitly seek,
and will consider public comment on our cost assumptions, as they
relate to the PRA requirements summarized in this section.
Summary PRA Burden Hours
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Burden (in
Provision hours)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sec. 160.204 Process for requesting exceptions...... 160
Sec. 164.506 General standards and implementation * TBD
specifications for uses and disclosures of protected
health information...................................
Sec. 164.508 Standards and implementation 3,561,076
specifications for uses and disclosures for which
individual authorization would be required...........
Sec. 164.510 Standards and implementation 8,903
specifications for uses and disclosures for which
individual authorization would not be required.......
Sec. 164.512 Notice of privacy practices; rights and 7,273,952
procedures...........................................
Sec. 164.514 Access to protected health information; * TBD
rights and procedures................................
Sec. 164.515 Accounting for uses and disclosures of * TBD
protected health information.........................
Sec. 164.516 Amendment and correction; rights and *TBD
procedures ..........................................
Sec. 164.520 Development and documentation of 2,927,000
policies and procedures..............................
Sec. 164.522 Compliance and Enforcement............. 2,500
-----------------
Total Hours....................................... 13,773,591
------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Burden to be determined based upon public comment.
Section 160.204 Process for Requesting Exceptions.
Section 160.204 would require States to: (1) Submit a written
request, that meets the requirements of this section, to the Secretary
to except a provision of State law from preemption under Sec. 160.203;
(2) submit a new request to the Secretary, should there be any changes
to the standard, requirement, or implementation specification or
provision of State law upon which an exception previously was granted,
and (3) submit a written request for an extension of the exception
prior to the end of the three-year approval period for a given
exception. In addition, Sec. 160.204 would require a State to submit a
written request for an advisory opinion to the Secretary that meets the
requirements of Sec. 160.204.
The burden associated with these requirements is the time and
effort necessary for a State to prepare and submit the written request
for preemption or advisory opinion to HCFA for approval. On an annual
basis it is estimated that it will take 10 States 16 hours each to
prepare and submit a request. The total annual burden associated with
this requirement is 160 hours.
Section 164.506 General Standards and Implementation Specifications
for Uses and Disclosures of Protected Health Information
Given that the burden associated with the following information
collection requirements will differ significantly, by the type and size
of plan or provider, we are explicitly soliciting comment on the burden
associated with the following requirements:
Except for disclosures of protected health information by
a covered entity that is a health care provider to another health care
provider for treatment purposes, Sec. 160.204(e) would require a
covered entity to maintain documentation demonstrating that they have
entered into a contract that meets the requirements of this part with
each of their business partners;
A covered entity would have to make all reasonable efforts
not to use or disclose more than the minimum amount of protected health
information necessary to accomplish the intended purpose of the use or
disclosure;
A covered entity could use protected health information to
create de-identified information if the individually identifiable
information has been removed, coded, encrypted, or otherwise eliminated
or concealed.
Section 164.508 Standards and Implementation Specifications for Uses
and Disclosures for Which Individual Authorization Would Be Required
Pursuant to the conditions set forth in this section, a covered
entity would need to obtain a written request from an individual,
before it uses or discloses protected health information of an
individual. A copy of the model form which appears in Appendix to
Subpart E of Part 164, or a form that contains the elements listed in
paragraphs (c) or (d) of this section, as applicable, would need to be
accepted by the covered entity.
The burden associated with these proposed requirements is the time
and effort necessary for a covered entity to obtain written
authorization prior to the disclosure of identifiable information. On
an annual basis it is estimated that it will take 890,269 entities, a
range of 0 to 80 hours per entity to obtain and
[[Page 60046]]
maintain authorization documentation on an annual basis. Given that we
believe the majority of the covered entities will be minimally affected
by this requirement, we estimate the annual average burden per entity
to be 4 hours for a total annual burden of 3,561,076 hours. Collecting
such authorization should have costs on the order of those associated
with providing access to records (not on a per page basis). Since the
proposed requirement does not apply to treatment and payment, assuming
1% of the 543 million health care encounters might be reasonable. At a
cost of about $10 each, the aggregate cost would be about $54 million.
Therefore, on average the cost per entity would be about $60, with many
entities receiving no requests and thus having no costs.
Section 164.510 Standards and Implementation Specifications for Uses
and Disclosures for Which Individual Authorization Would Not Be
Required
A covered entity could disclose protected health information to a
health researcher for health research purposes subject to 45 CFR part
46 and purposes other than those subject to 45 CFR part 46, provided
that the covered entity has obtained written documentation
demonstrating that the applicable requirements proposed in this section
have been met.
The burden associated with these proposed requirements is the time
and effort necessary for a covered entity to maintain documentation
demonstrating that they have obtained institutional review board or
privacy board approval, which meet the requirements of this section. On
an annual basis it is estimated that this proposed requirement will
affect 1 % or 8,903 of covered entities. We further estimate that it
will take an average of 1 hour per entity to meet these proposed
requirements on an annual basis. Therefore, the total estimated annual
burden associated with this proposed requirement is 8,903 hours.
Section 164.512 Notice of Privacy Practices; Rights and Procedures
Section 164.512 would require covered entities to provide written
notice of the entities' privacy practices, rights, and procedures that
meet the requirements of this section to affected parties upon request
and as summarized below.
Health plans would provide a copy of the notice to an individual
covered by the plan at enrollment and whenever the content of the
notice is significantly altered thereafter, but no less frequently than
once every three years. Total notice counts are estimated to be about
230 million, assuming plans choose to send them out annually rather
than keeping track of duration since last notice. The average number of
notices per plan per year would be about 1,200. For the approximately
19,000 plans issuing notices, the number of notices can be as few as
1,000 for a small self-insured self-administered employer, or as many
as a million or more for a large commercial insurer or HMO. We further
estimate that it will require each plan, on average, 8 hours to
disseminate the required notices. This estimate is based upon the
assumption that the required notice will be incorporated and
disseminated with a plan's annual policy materials. The total burden
associated with this requirement is calculated to be 151,800 hours.
Health care providers would provide a copy of the notice to an
individual at the time of first service delivery to the individual,
provide as promptly as possible a copy of the notice to an individual
served by the provider whenever the content of the notice is
significantly altered, post a copy of the notice in a location where it
is reasonable to expect individuals seeking services from the provider
to be able to read the notice, and date each version of the notice.
Total notices in the first year are estimated to be about 700 million
(based on annual patient contacts with hospitals, physicians, and other
providers), with subsequent year counts of 350 million. Small providers
could be providing 400 or fewer notices (based on 150 million persons
with ambulatory physician contacts per year and approximately 370,000
physician offices). The overall average will also be close to that
amount, since the bulk of providers are small entities. Large providers
could be sending out 3,000 or more notices (based on 20 million persons
with hospitalizations and approximately 6600 hospitals). We further
estimate that it will require each provider, on average, 8 hours to
disseminate the required notices. This estimate is based upon the
assumption that the required notice will be incorporated into and
disseminated with other patient materials. The total burden associated
with this requirement is calculated to be 7,122,152 hours.
Section 164.514 Access of Individuals to Protected Health Information
Given that the burden associated with the following information
collection requirements will differ significantly, by the type and size
of plan or provider, we are explicitly soliciting comment on the burden
associated with the following proposed requirements:
An individual has a right of access to, which includes a
right to inspect and obtain a copy of, his or her protected health
information in a designated record set of a covered entity that is a
health plan or a health care provider, including such information in a
business partner's designated record set that is not a duplicate of the
information held by the provider or plan, for so long as the
information is maintained;
Where the request is denied in whole or in part, the
health plan or a health care provider would provide the individual with
a written statement of the basis for the denial and a description of
how the individual may complain to the covered entity pursuant to the
complaint procedures established in Sec. 164.518 or to the Secretary
pursuant to the procedures established in Sec. 164.522 of this subpart.
Section 164.515 Accounting for Uses and Disclosures of Protected
Health Information
Given that the burden associated with maintaining records to
facilitate the recreation of disclosures will differ significantly, be
the type and size of plan or provider, we are explicitly soliciting
comment on the burden associated with the following proposed record
keeping requirement:
A covered entity that is a plan or provider would need to
be able to give individuals an accurate accounting of all uses and
disclosures that are for purposes other than treatment, payment, and
health care operations; except that such procedures would provide for
the exclusion from such accounting of protected health information
which is disclosed to a health oversight or law enforcement agency, if
the health oversight or law enforcement agency provides a written
request stating that the exclusion is necessary because disclosure
would be reasonably likely to impede the agency's activities and
specifies the time for which such exclusion is required.
Section 164.516 Amendment and Correction
Given that burden will associated with the following information
collection requirements will differ significantly, by the type and size
of plan or provider, we are explicitly soliciting comment on the burden
associated with the following proposed requirements:
An individual would have the right to request amendment or
correction of his or her protected health information in designated
records created by a covered entity that is a health plan or health
care provider, where the
[[Page 60047]]
individual asserts that the information is not accurate or complete and
where the error or omission may have an adverse effect on the
individual.
Where the request is denied , provide the individual with
a written statement of the basis for the denial, a description of how
the individual may file a statement of disagreement with the denial, a
description of how the individual may file a complaint with the covered
entity, including the name and telephone number of a contact person
within the covered entity who can answer questions concerning the
denial and the complaint process; and a description of how the
individual may file a complaint with the Secretary pursuant to
Sec. 164.522 of this subpart.
Section 164.520 Internal Privacy Practices; Standards and Procedures
A covered entity would need to ensure that all employees who have
access to protected health information have received appropriate
training about the entity's policies for use and disclosure of such
information. Upon completion of the training and at least once every
three years thereafter, covered entities would require each employee to
sign a statement that he or she received the privacy training and will
honor all of the entity's privacy policies and procedures.
The burden associated with these requirements is the time and
effort necessary for a covered entity to obtain and maintain
certification documentation demonstrating that applicable employees
have received privacy training and will honor all of the entity's
privacy policies and procedures. It is estimated that it will take
890,269 entities, a range of 1 hour to 40 hours per entity to obtain
and maintain documentation on an annual basis. Given that we believe
the majority of the covered entities will be minimally affected by this
requirement, we estimate the annual average burden to be 3 hours per
entity for a total annual burden of 2,700,000 hours. Using previous
calculations, 900,000 (rounded) entities break down to about 95% small,
5% various types of large, and 1 burden hour for 95%, and 40 burden
hours for 5%, the average burden would be 3 hours.
In addition, this section would require a covered entity that is a
health plan or health care provider to develop and document its
policies and procedures for implementing the requirements of this
proposed rule, and amend the documentation to reflect any change to a
policy or procedure.
The burden associated with these requirements is the time and
effort necessary for a covered entity to maintain documentation
demonstrating that they have implemented procedures that meet the
requirements of this proposed rule. It is estimated that it will take
890,269 entities a range of 15 minutes to 1 hour per entity to maintain
procedural documentation on an annual basis. We believe the majority
(95%) of the covered entities will be minimally affected by this
requirement. Using the 95% small/5% large, the average burden is 17
minutes. Multiplying by 890,269, results in a total annual burden of
256,000 hours (see discussion below).
Since the requirements for developing formal processes and
documentation of procedures mirror what will already have been required
under the HIPAA security regulations, the burden and additional costs
should be small. To the extent that national or state associations will
develop guidelines or general sets of processes and procedures which
will be reviewed by individual member entity, the costs would be
primarily those of the individual reviewers. Assuming this process
occurs, we believe that entities will review information from
associations in each state and prepare a set of written policies to
meet their needs. Our estimates are based on assumed costs for
providers ranging from $300 to $3000, with the average being about
$375. The range correlates to the size and complexity of the provider.
With less than 1 million provider entities, the aggregate cost would be
on the order of $300 million. For plans and clearinghouses, our
estimate assumes that the legal review and development of written
policies will be more costly because of the scope of their operations.
They are often dealing with a large number of different providers and
may be dealing with requirements from multiple states. We believe the
costs for these entities will range from $300 for smaller plans to
$15,000 for the largest plans. Because there are very few large plans
in relation to the number of small plans, the average implementation
costs will be about $3050.
Section 164.522 Compliance and Enforcement
An individual who believes that a covered entity is not complying
with the requirements of this subpart may file a complaint with the
Secretary within 180 days from the date of the alleged non-compliance,
unless the time for filing is extended by the Secretary. The complaint
would describe in detail the acts or omissions believed to be in
violation of the requirements of this subpart.
The burden associated with these requirements is the time and
effort necessary for an individual to prepare and submit a written
complaint to the Secretary. On an annual basis it is estimated that
10,000 complaints will be filed on an annual basis. We further estimate
that it will take an average of 15 minutes per individual to submit a
complaint. Therefore, the total estimated annual burden associated with
this requirement is 2,500 hours.
A covered entity would need to maintain documentation necessary for
the Secretary to ascertain whether the covered entity has complied or
is complying with the requirements of this subpart. While this section
is subject to the PRA, the burden associated with this requirement is
addressed under sections referenced above, which discuss specific
record keeping requirements.
We have submitted a copy of this proposed rule to OMB for its
review of the information collection requirements in Secs. 160.204,
164.506, 164.508, 164.510, 164.512, 164.514, 164.515, 164.516, 164.520,
and Sec. 164.522. These requirements are not effective until they have
been approved by OMB.
If you comment on any of these information collection and record
keeping requirements, please mail copies directly to the following:
Health Care Financing Administration, Office of Information Services,
Information Technology Investment Management Group, Division of HCFA
Enterprise Standards, Room C2-26-17, 7500 Security Boulevard,
Baltimore, MD 21244-1850. ATTN: John Burke HIPAA Privacy-P
Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, Office of Management and
Budget, Room 10235, New Executive Office Building, Washington, DC
20503. ATTN: Allison Herron Eydt, HCFA Desk Officer.
IX. Executive Order 12612: Federalism
The Department has examined the effects of provisions in the
proposed privacy regulation on the relationship between the Federal
government and the States, as required by Executive Order 12612 on
``Federalism.'' The agency concludes that preempting State or local
proposed rules that provide less stringent privacy protection
requirements than Federal law is consistent with this Executive Order.
Overall, the proposed rule attempts to balance both the autonomy of the
States with the necessity to create a Federal benchmark to preserve the
privacy of personally identifiable health information.
[[Page 60048]]
It is recognized that the States generally have laws that relate to
the privacy of individually identifiable health information. The HIPAA
statute dictates the relationship between State law and this proposed
rule. Except for laws that are specifically exempted by the HIPAA
statute, State laws continue to be enforceable, unless they are
contrary to Part C of Title XI of the standards, requirements, or
implementation specifications adopted or pursuant to subpart x.
However, under section 264(c)(2), not all contrary provisions of State
privacy laws are preempted; rather, the law provides that contrary
provisions that are also ``more stringent'' than the federal regulatory
requirements or implementation specifications will continue to be
enforceable.
Section 3(b) of Executive Order 12612 recognizes that Federal
action limiting the discretion of State and local governments is
appropriate ``where constitutional authority for the action is clear
and certain and the national activity is necessitated by the presence
of a problem of national scope.'' Personal privacy issues are widely
identified as a national concern by virtue of the scope of interstate
health commerce. HIPAA's provisions reflect this position. HIPAA
attempts to facilitate the electronic exchange of financial and
administrative health plan transactions while recognizing challenges
that local, national, and international information sharing raise to
confidentiality and privacy of health information.
Section 3(d)(2) of the Executive Order 12612 requires that the
Federal government refrain from ``establishing uniform, national
standards for programs and, when possible, defer to the States to
establish standards.'' HIPAA requires HHS to establish standards, and
we have done so accordingly. This approach is a key component of the
proposed privacy rule, and it adheres to Section 4(a) of Executive
Order 12612, which expressly contemplates preemption when there is a
conflict between exercising State and Federal authority under Federal
statute. Section 262 of HIPAA enacted Section 1178 of the Social
Security Act, developing a ``general rule'' that State laws or
provisions that are contrary to the provisions or requirements of Part
C of Title XI, or the standards or implementation specifications
adopted, or established thereunder are preempted. Several exceptions to
this rule exist, each of which is designed to maintain a high degree of
State autonomy.
Moreover, Section 4(b) of the Executive Order authorizes preemption
of State law in the Federal rule making context when there is ``firm
and palpable evidence compelling the conclusion that the Congress
intended to delegate to the * * * agency the authority to issue
regulations preempting State law.'' Section 1178 (a)(2)(B) of HIPAA
specifically preempts State laws related to the privacy of individually
identifiable health information unless the State law is more stringent.
Thus, we have interpreted State and local laws and regulations that
would impose less stringent requirements for protection of individually
identifiable health information as undermining the agency's goal of
ensuring that all patients who receive medical services are assured a
minimum level of personal privacy. Particularly where the absence of
privacy protection undermines an individual's access to health care
services, both the personal and public interest is served by
establishing Federal rules.
The proposed rule would establish national minimum standards with
respect to the collection, maintenance, access, transfer, and
disclosure of personally identifiable health information. The Federal
law will preempt State law only where State and Federal laws are
``contradictory'' and the Federal regulation is judged to establish
``more stringent'' privacy protections than State laws.
As required by the Executive Order, States and local governments
will be given, through this notice of proposed rule making, an
opportunity to participate in the proceedings to preempt State and
local laws (section 4(e) of Executive Order 12612). However, it should
be noted that the preemption of state law is based on the HIPAA
statute. The Secretary will also provide a review of preemption issues
upon requests from States. In addition, under the Order, appropriate
officials and organizations will be consulted before this proposed
action is implemented (section 3(a) of Executive Order 12612).
Finally, we have considered the cost burden that this proposed rule
would impose on State-operated health care entities, Medicaid, and
other State health benefits programs. We do not have access to reliable
information on the number of State-operated entities and programs, nor
do we have access to data on the costs these entities and programs
would incur in order to comply with the proposed rule. A discussion of
possible compliance costs that covered entities may incur is contained
in the Unfunded Mandates section above. We believe that requiring State
health care entities covered by the proposed rule to comply with the
proposed rule would cost less than one percent of a State's annual
budget.
The agency concludes that the policy proposed in this document has
been assessed in light of the principles, criteria, and requirements in
Executive Order 12612; that this policy is not inconsistent with that
Order; that this policy will not impose significant additional costs
and burdens on the States; and that this policy will not affect the
ability of the States to discharge traditional State governmental
functions.
During our consultation with the States, representatives from
various State agencies and offices expressed concern that the proposed
regulation would pre-empt all State privacy laws. As explained in this
section, the regulation would only pre-empt state laws where there is a
direct conflict between state laws and the regulation, and where the
regulation provides more stringent privacy protection than State law.
We discussed this issue during our consultation with State
representatives, who generally accepted our approach to the preemption
issue. During the consultation, we requested further information from
the States about whether they currently have laws requiring that
providers have a ``duty to warn'' family members or third parties about
a patient's condition other than in emergency circumstances. Since the
consultation, we have not received additional comments or questions
from the States.
X. Executive Order 13086: Consultation and Coordination with Indian
Tribal Governments
In drafting the proposed rule, the Department consulted with
representatives of the National Congress of American Indians and the
National Indian Health Board, as well as with a representative of the
self-governance Tribes. During the consultation, we discussed issues
regarding the application of Title II of HIPAA to the Tribes, and
potential variations based on the relationship of each Tribe with the
IHS for the purpose of providing health services. Participants raised
questions about the status of Tribal laws regarding the privacy of
health information.
List of Subjects in 45 CFR Parts 160 and 164
Employer benefit plan, Health, Health care, Health facilities,
Health insurance, Health records, Medicaid, Medical
[[Page 60049]]
research, Medicare, Privacy, Reporting and recordkeeping requirements,
security measures.
Note to reader: This proposed rule is one of several proposed
rules that are being published to implement the Administrative
Simplification provisions of the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act of 1996. We propose to establish a new 45 CFR
subchapter C, parts 160 through 164. Part 160 will consist of
general provisions, part 162 will consists of the various
Administrative Simplification regulations relating to transactions
and identifiers, and part 164 will consists of the regulations
implementing the security and privacy requirements of the
legislation. Proposed part 160, consisting of two subparts (Subpart
A General Provisions, and Subpart B--Preemption of State Law) will
be exactly the same in each rule, unless we add new sections or
definitions to incorporate additional general information in the
later rules.
Dated: October 26, 1999.
Donna Shalala,
Secretary.
Appendix to the Preamble: Sample Contact of Provider Notice
PROVIDER NOTICE OF INFORMATION PRACTICES (as of 1/1/1999)
Uses and Disclosures of Health Information
We use health information about you for treatment, to obtain
payment for treatment, for administrative purposes, and to evaluate
the quality of care that you receive.
We may use or disclose identifiable health information about you
without your authorization for several other reasons. Subject to
certain requirements, we may give out health information without
your authorization for public health purposes, for auditing
purposes, for research studies, and for emergencies. We provide
information when otherwise required by law, such as for law
enforcement in specific circumstances. In any other situation, we
will ask for your written authorization before using or disclosing
any identifiable health information about you. If you choose to sign
an authorization to disclose information, you can later revoke that
authorization to stop any future uses and disclosures.
We may change our policies at any time. Before we make a
significant change in our policies, we will change our notice and
post the new notice in the waiting area and in each examination
room. You can also request a copy of our notice at any time. For
more information about our privacy practices, contact the person
listed below.
Individual Rights
In most cases, you have the right to look at or get a copy of
health information about you that we use to make decisions about
you. If you request copies, we will charge you $0.05 (5 cents) for
each page. You also have the right to receive a list of instances
where we have disclosed health information about you for reasons
other than treatment, payment or related administrative purposes. If
you believe that information in your record is incorrect or if
important information is missing, you have the right to request that
we correct the existing information or add the missing information.
You may request in writing that we not use or disclose your
information for treatment, payment and administrative purposes
except when specifically authorized by you, when required by law, or
in emergency circumstances. We will consider your request but are
not legally required to accept it.
Complaints
If you are concerned that we have violated your privacy rights,
or you disagree with a decision we made about access to your
records, you may contact the person listed below. You also may send
a written complaint to the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services. The person listed below can provide you with the
appropriate address upon request.
Our Legal Duty
We are required by law to protect the privacy of your
information, provide this notice about our information practices,
and follow the information practices that are described in this
notice.
If you have any questions or complaints, please contact: Office
Administrator, 111 Main Street, Suite 101, Anytown, OH 41111. Phone:
(111) 555-6789, Email: admin@docshop.com.
For the reasons set forth in the preamble, it is proposed to amend
45 CFR subtitle A by adding a new subchapter C, consisting of parts 160
through 164, to read as follows:
SUBCHAPTER C--ADMINISTRATIVE DATA STANDARDS AND RELATED REQUIREMENTS
Part
160--GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS
161-163--[RESERVED]
164--SECURITY AND PRIVACY
PART 160--GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE REQUIREMENTS
Subpart A--General Provisions
Sec.
160.101 Statutory basis and purpose
160.102 Applicability
160.103 Definitions
160.104 Effective dates of a modification to a standard or
implementation specification
Subpart B--Preemption of State Law
160.201 Applicability
160.202 Definitions
160.203 General rule and exceptions
160.204 Process for requesting exception determinations or advisory
opinions
Authority: 42 U.S.C. 1320d-2 and 1320d-4.
Subpart A--General Provisions
Sec. 160.101 Statutory basis and purpose.
The requirements of this subchapter implement sections 1171 through
1179 of the Social Security Act, as amended, which require HHS to adopt
national standards to enable the electronic exchange of health
information in the health care system. The requirements of this
subchapter also implement section 264 of Pub. L 104-191, which requires
that HHS adopt national standards with respect to the privacy of
individually identifiable health information transmitted in connection
with the transactions described in section 1173(a)(1) of the Social
Security Act. The purpose of these provisions is to promote
administrative simplification.
Sec. 160.102 Applicability.
Except as otherwise provided, the standards, requirements, and
implementation specifications adopted or designated under the parts of
this subchapter apply to any entity that is:
(a) A health plan;
(b) A health care clearinghouse; and
(c) A health care provider who transmits any health information in
electronic form in connection with a transaction covered by this
subchapter.
Sec. 160.103 Definitions.
Except as otherwise provided, the following definitions apply to
this subchapter:
Act means the Social Security Act, as amended.
Covered entity means an entity described in Sec. 160.102.
Health care means the provision of care, services, or supplies to a
patient and includes any:
(1) Preventive, diagnostic, therapeutic, rehabilitative,
maintenance, or palliative care, counseling, service, or procedure with
respect to the physical or mental condition, or functional status, of a
patient or affecting the structure or function of the body;
(2) Sale or dispensing of a drug, device, equipment, or other item
pursuant to a prescription; or
(3) Procurement or banking of blood, sperm, organs, or any other
tissue for administration to patients.
Health care clearinghouse means a public or private entity that
processes or facilitates the processing of nonstandard data elements of
health information into standard data elements. The entity receives
health care transactions from health care providers or other entities,
translates the data from a given format into one acceptable to the
intended payer or payers, and forwards the processed transaction to
appropriate payers and clearinghouses. Billing services, repricing
companies, community health management information systems, community
health information systems, and ``value-added''
[[Page 60050]]
networks and switches are considered to be health care clearinghouses
for purposes of this part, if they perform the functions of health care
clearinghouses as described in the preceding sentences.
Health care provider means a provider of services as defined in
section 1861(u) of the Act, a provider of medical or health services as
defined in section 1861(s) of the Act, and any other person or
organization who furnishes, bills, or is paid for health care services
or supplies in the normal course of business.
Health information means any information, whether oral or recorded
in any form or medium, that:
(1) Is created or received by a health care provider, health plan,
public health authority, employer, life insurer, school or university,
or health care clearinghouse; and
(2) Relates to the past, present, or future physical or mental
health or condition of an individual, the provision of health care to
an individual, or the past, present, or future payment for the
provision of health care to an individual.
Health plan means an individual or group plan that provides, or
pays the cost of, medical care. Such term includes, when applied to
government funded or assisted programs, the components of the
government agency administering the program. ``Health plan'' includes
the following, singly or in combination:
(1) A group health plan, defined as an employee welfare benefit
plan (as currently defined in section 3(1) of the Employee Retirement
Income and Security Act of 1974, 29 U.S.C. 1002(1)), including insured
and self-insured plans, to the extent that the plan provides medical
care (as defined in section 2791(a)(2) of the Public Health Service
Act, 42 U.S.C. 300gg-91(a)(2)), including items and services paid for
as medical care, to employees or their dependents directly or through
insurance or otherwise, that:
(i) Has 50 or more participants; or
(ii) Is administered by an entity other than the employer that
established and maintains the plan.
(2) A health insurance issuer, defined as an insurance company,
insurance service, or insurance organization that is licensed to engage
in the business of insurance in a State and is subject to State or
other law that regulates insurance.
(3) A health maintenance organization, defined as a federally
qualified health maintenance organization, an organization recognized
as a health maintenance organization under State law, or a similar
organization regulated for solvency under State law in the same manner
and to the same extent as such a health maintenance organization.
(4) Part A or Part B of the Medicare program under title XVIII of
the Act.
(5) The Medicaid program under title XIX of the Act.
(6) A Medicare supplemental policy (as defined in section
1882(g)(1) of the Act, 42 U.S.C. 1395ss).
(7) A long-term care policy, including a nursing home fixed-
indemnity policy.
(8) An employee welfare benefit plan or any other arrangement that
is established or maintained for the purpose of offering or providing
health benefits to the employees of two or more employers.
(9) The health care program for active military personnel under
title 10 of the United States Code.
(10) The veterans health care program under 38 U.S.C. chapter 17.
(11) The Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed
Services (CHAMPUS), as defined in 10 U.S.C. 1072(4).
(12) The Indian Health Service program under the Indian Health Care
Improvement Act (25 U.S.C. 1601, et seq.).
(13) The Federal Employees Health Benefits Program under 5 U.S.C.
chapter 89.
(14) An approved State child health plan for child health
assistance that meets the requirements of section 2103 of the Act.
(15) A Medicare Plus Choice organization as defined in 42 CFR
422.2, with a contract under 42 CFR part 422, subpart K.
(16) Any other individual or group health plan, or combination
thereof, that provides or pays for the cost of medical care.
Secretary means the Secretary of Health and Human Services and any
other officer or employee of the Department of Health and Human
Services to whom the authority involved has been delegated.
Small health plan means a health plan with annual receipts of $5
million or less.
Standard means a prescribed set of rules, conditions, or
requirements concerning classification of components, specification of
materials, performance or operations, or delineation of procedures, in
describing products, systems, services or practices.
State includes the 50 States, the District of Columbia, the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Guam.
Transaction means the exchange of information between two parties
to carry out financial or administrative activities related to health
care. It includes the following:
(1) Health claims or equivalent encounter information;
(2) Health care payment and remittance advice;
(3) Coordination of benefits;
(4) Health claims status;
(5) Enrollment and disenrollment in a health plan;
(6) Eligibility for a health plan;
(7) Health plan premium payments;
(8) Referral certification and authorization;
(9) First report of injury;
(10) Health claims attachments; and
(11) Other transactions as the Secretary may prescribe by
regulation.
Sec. 160.104 Effective dates of a modification to a standard or
implementation specification.
The Secretary may modify a standard or implementation specification
after the first year in which the standard or implementation
specification is required to be used, but not more frequently than once
every 12 months. If the Secretary adopts a modification to a standard
or implementation specification, the implementation date of the
modified standard or implementation specification may be no earlier
than 180 days following the adoption of the modification. The Secretary
will determine the actual date, taking into account the time needed to
comply due to the nature and extent of the modification. The Secretary
may extend the time for compliance for small health plans.
Subpart B--Preemption of State Law
Sec. 160.201 Applicability.
The provisions of this subpart apply to determinations and advisory
opinions issued by the Secretary pursuant to 42 U.S.C. 1320d-7.
Sec. 160.202 Definitions.
For the purpose of this subpart, the following terms have the
following meanings:
Contrary, when used to compare a provision of State law to a
standard, requirement, or implementation specification adopted under
this subchapter, means:
(1) A party would find it impossible to comply with both the State
and federal requirements; or
(2) The provision of State law stands as an obstacle to the
accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of
part C of title XI of the Act or section 264 of Pub. L. 104-191, as
applicable.
More stringent means, in the context of a comparison of a provision
of State
[[Page 60051]]
law and a standard, requirement, or implementation specification
adopted under subpart E of part 164 of this subchapter, a law which
meets one or more of the following criteria, as applicable:
(1) With respect to a use or disclosure, provides a more limited
use or disclosure (in terms of the number of potential recipients of
the information, the amount of information to be disclosed, or the
circumstances under which information may be disclosed).
(2) With respect to the rights of individuals of access to or
amendment of individually identifiable health information, permits
greater rights or access or amendment, as applicable, provided,
however, that nothing in this subchapter shall be construed to preempt
any State law to the extent that it authorizes or prohibits disclosure
of protected health information regarding a minor to a parent, guardian
or person acting in loco parentis of such minor.
(3) With respect to penalties, provides greater penalties.
(4) With respect to information to be provided to an individual
about a proposed use, disclosure, rights, remedies, and similar issues,
provides the greater amount of information.
(5) With respect to form or substance of authorizations for use or
disclosure of information, provides requirements that narrow the scope
or duration, increase the difficulty of obtaining, or reduce the
coercive effect of the circumstances surrounding the authorization.
(6) With respect to recordkeeping or accounting requirements,
provides for the retention or reporting of more detailed information or
for a longer duration.
(7) With respect to any other matter, provides greater privacy
protection for the individual.
Relates to the privacy of individually identifiable health
information means, with respect to a State law, that the State law has
the specific purpose of protecting the privacy of health information or
the effect of affecting the privacy of health information in a direct,
clear, and substantial way.
State law means a law, decision, rule, regulation, or other State
action having the effect of law.
Sec. 160.203 General rule and exceptions.
General rule. A standard, requirement, or implementation
specification adopted under or pursuant to this subchapter that is
contrary to a provision of State law preempts the provision of State
law. This general rule applies, except where one or more of the
following conditions is met:
(a) A determination is made by the Secretary pursuant to
Sec. 160.204(a) that the provision of State law:
(1) Is necessary:
(i) To prevent fraud and abuse;
(ii) To ensure appropriate State regulation of insurance and health
plans;
(iii) For State reporting on health care delivery or costs; or
(iv) For other purposes related to improving the Medicare program,
the Medicaid program, or the efficiency and effectiveness of the health
care system; or
(2) Addresses controlled substances.
(b) The provision of State law relates to the privacy of health
information and is more stringent than a standard, requirement, or
implementation specification adopted under subpart E of part 164 of
this subchapter.
(c) The provision of State law, or the State established
procedures, are established under a State law providing for the
reporting of disease or injury, child abuse, birth, or death, or for
the conduct of public health surveillance, investigation, or
intervention.
(d) The provision of State law requires a health plan to report, or
to provide access to, information for the purpose of management audits,
financial audits, program monitoring and evaluation, facility licensure
or certification, or individual licensure or certification.
Sec. 160.204 Process for requesting exception determinations or
advisory opinions.
(a) Determinations. (1) A State may submit a written request to the
Secretary to except a provision of State law from preemption under
Sec. 160.203(a). The request must include the following information:
(i) The State law for which the exception is requested;
(ii) The particular standard(s), requirement(s), or implementation
specification(s) for which the exception is requested;
(iii) The part of the standard or other provision that will not be
implemented based on the exception or the additional data to be
collected based on the exception, as appropriate;
(iv) How health care providers, health plans, and other entities
would be affected by the exception;
(v) The length of time for which the exception would be in effect,
if less than three years;
(vi) The reasons why the State law should not be preempted by the
federal standard, requirement, or implementation specification,
including how the State law meets one or more of the criteria at
Sec. 160.203(a); and
(vii) Any other information the Secretary may request in order to
make the determination.
(2) Requests for exception under this section must be submitted to
the Secretary at an address which will be published in the Federal
Register. Until the Secretary's determination is made, the standard,
requirement, or implementation specification under this subchapter
remains in effect.
(3) The Secretary's determination under this paragraph will be made
on the basis of the extent to which the information provided and other
factors demonstrate that one or more of the criteria at Sec. 160.203(a)
has been met. If it is determined that the federal standard,
requirement, or implementation specification accomplishes the purposes
of the criterion or criteria at Sec. 160.203(a) as well as or better
than the State law for which the request is made, the request will be
denied.
(4) An exception granted under this paragraph is effective for
three years or for such lesser time as is specified in the
determination granting the request.
(5) If an exception is granted under this paragraph, the exception
has effect only with respect to transactions taking place wholly within
the State for which the exception was requested.
(6) Any change to the standard, requirement, or implementation
specification or provision of State law upon which an exception was
granted requires a new request for an exception. Absent such a request
and a favorable determination thereon, the standard, requirement, or
implementation specification remains in effect. The responsibility for
recognizing the need for and making the request lies with the original
requestor.
(7) The Secretary may seek changes to a standard, requirement, or
implementation specification based on requested exceptions or may urge
the requesting State or other organizations or persons to do so.
(8) Determinations made by the Secretary pursuant to this paragraph
will be published annually in the Federal Register.
(b) Advisory opinions.--(1) The Secretary may issue advisory
opinions as to whether a provision of State law constitutes an
exception under Sec. 160.203(b) to the general rule of preemption under
that section. The Secretary may issue such opinions at the request of a
State or at the Secretary's own initiative.
(2) A State may submit a written request to the Secretary for an
advisory opinion under this paragraph. The
[[Page 60052]]
request must include the following information:
(i) The State law for which the exception is requested;
(ii) The particular standard(s), requirement(s), or implementation
specification(s) for which the exception is requested;
(iii) How health care providers, health plans, and other entities
would be affected by the exception;
(iv) The reasons why the State law should not be preempted by the
federal standard, requirement, or implementation specification,
including how the State law meets the criteria at Sec. 160.203(b); and
(v) Any other information the Secretary may request in order to
issue the advisory opinion.
(3) The requirements of paragraphs (a)(2), (a)(5)-(a)(7) of this
section apply to requests for advisory opinions under this paragraph.
(4) The Secretary's decision under this paragraph will be made on
the basis of the extent to which the information provided and other
factors demonstrate that the criteria at Sec. 160.203(b) are met.
(5) Advisory opinions made by the Secretary pursuant to this
paragraph will be published annually in the Federal Register.
PARTS 161-163--[RESERVED]
PART 164--SECURITY AND PRIVACY
Subpart A--General Provisions
Sec.
164.102 Statutory basis
164.104 Applicability
Subparts B-D--[Reserved]
Subpart E--Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information
164.502 Applicability
164.504 Definitions
164.506 Uses and disclosures of protected health information:
general rules
164.508 Uses and disclosures for which individual authorization is
required
164.510 Uses and disclosures for which individual authorization is
not required
164.512 Notice to individuals of information practices
164.514 Access of individuals to protected health information
164.515 Accounting for disclosures of protected health information
164.516 Amendment and correction
164.518 Administrative requirements
164.520 Documentation of policies and procedures
164.522 Compliance and enforcement
164.524 Effective date
Appendix to Subpart E of Part 164--Model Authorization Form
Authority: 42 U.S.C. 1320d-2 and 1320d-4.
Subpart A--General Provisions
Sec. 164.102 Statutory basis.
The provisions of this part are adopted pursuant to the Secretary's
authority to prescribe standards, requirements, and implementation
standards under part C of title XI of the Act and section 264 of Public
Law 104-191.
Sec. 164.104 Applicability.
Except as otherwise provided, the provisions of this part apply to
covered entities: health plans, health care clearinghouses, and health
care providers who transmit health information in electronic form in
connection with any transaction referred to in section 1173(a)(1) of
the Act.
Subpart B-D--[Reserved]
Subpart E--Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information
Sec. 164.502 Applicability.
In addition to the applicable provisions of part 160 of this
subchapter and except as otherwise herein provided, the requirements,
standards, and implementation specifications of this subpart apply to
covered entities with respect to protected health information.
Sec. 164.504 Definitions.
As used in this subpart, the following terms have the following
meanings:
Business partner means, with respect to a covered entity, a person
to whom the covered entity discloses protected health information so
that the person can carry out, assist with the performance of, or
perform on behalf of, a function or activity for the covered entity.
``Business partner'' includes contractors or other persons who receive
protected health information from the covered entity (or from another
business partner of the covered entity) for the purposes described in
the previous sentence, including lawyers, auditors, consultants, third-
party administrators, health care clearinghouses, data processing
firms, billing firms, and other covered entities. ``Business partner''
excludes persons who are within the covered entity's workforce, as
defined in this section.
Designated record set means a group of records under the control of
a covered entity from which information is retrieved by the name of the
individual or by some identifying number, symbol, or other identifying
particular assigned to the individual and which is used by the covered
entity to make decisions about the individual. For purposes of this
paragraph, the term record means any item, collection, or grouping of
protected health information maintained, collected, used, or
disseminated by a covered entity.
Disclosure means the release, transfer, provision of access to, or
divulging in any other manner of information outside the entity holding
the information.
Health care operations means the following activities undertaken by
or on behalf of a covered entity that is a health plan or health care
provider for the purpose of carrying out the management functions of
such entity necessary for the support of treatment or payment:
(1) Conducting quality assessment and improvement activities,
including outcomes evaluation and development of clinical guidelines;
(2) Reviewing the competence or qualifications of health care
professionals, evaluating practitioner and provider performance, health
plan performance, conducting training programs in which undergraduate
and graduate students and trainees in areas of health care learn under
supervision to practice as health care providers, accreditation,
certification, licensing or credentialing activities;
(3) Insurance rating and other insurance activities relating to the
renewal of a contract for insurance, including underwriting, experience
rating, and reinsurance, but only when the individuals are already
enrolled in the health plan conducting such activities and the use or
disclosure of protected health information relates to an existing
contract of insurance (including the renewal of such a contract);
(4) Conducting or arranging for medical review and auditing
services, including fraud and abuse detection and compliance programs;
and
(5) Compiling and analyzing information in anticipation of or for
use in a civil or criminal legal proceeding.
Health oversight agency means an agency, person or entity,
including the employees or agents thereof,
(1) That is:
(i) A public agency; or
(ii) A person or entity acting under grant of authority from or
contract with a public agency; and
(2) Which performs or oversees the performance of any audit;
investigation; inspection; licensure or discipline; civil, criminal, or
administrative proceeding or action; or other activity necessary for
appropriate oversight of the health care system, of government benefit
programs for which health information is relevant to beneficiary
eligibility, or of government regulatory programs for which health
information is necessary
[[Page 60053]]
for determining compliance with program standards.
Individual means the person who is the subject of protected health
information, except that:
(1) ``Individual'' includes:
(i) With respect to adults and emancipated minors, legal
representatives (such as court-appointed guardians or persons with a
power of attorney), to the extent to which applicable law permits such
legal representatives to exercise the person's rights in such contexts.
(ii) With respect to unemancipated minors, a parent, guardian, or
person acting in loco parentis, provided that when a minor lawfully
obtains a health care service without the consent of or notification to
a parent, guardian, or other person acting in loco parentis, the minor
shall have the exclusive right to exercise the rights of an individual
under this subpart with respect to the protected health information
relating to such care.
(iii) With respect to deceased persons, an executor, administrator,
or other person authorized under applicable law to act on behalf of the
decedent's estate.
(2) ``Individual'' excludes:
(i) Foreign military and diplomatic personnel and their dependents
who receive health care provided by or paid for by the Department of
Defense or other federal agency, or by an entity acting on its behalf,
pursuant to a country-to-country agreement or federal statute; and
(ii) Overseas foreign national beneficiaries of health care
provided by the Department of Defense or other federal agency, or by a
non-governmental organization acting on its behalf.
Individually identifiable health information is information that is
a subset of health information, including demographic information
collected from an individual, and that:
(1) Is created by or received from a health care provider, health
plan, employer, or health care clearinghouse; and
(2) Relates to the past, present, or future physical or mental
health or condition of an individual, the provision of health care to
an individual, or the past, present, or future payment for the
provision of health care to an individual, and
(i) Which identifies the individual, or
(ii) With respect to which there is a reasonable basis to believe
that the information can be used to identify the individual.
Law enforcement official means an officer of an agency or authority
of the United States, a State, a territory, a political subdivision of
a State or territory, or an Indian tribe, who is empowered by law to
conduct:
(1) An investigation or official proceeding inquiring into a
violation of, or failure to comply with, any law; or
(2) A criminal, civil, or administrative proceeding arising from a
violation of, or failure to comply with, any law.
Payment means:
(1) The activities undertaken by or on behalf of a covered entity
that is:
(i) A health plan, or by a business partner on behalf of a health
plan, to obtain premiums or to determine or fulfill its responsibility
for coverage under the health plan and for provision of benefits under
the health plan; or
(ii) A health care provider or health plan, or a business partner
on behalf of such provider or plan, to obtain reimbursement for the
provision of health care.
(2) Activities that constitute payment include:
(i) Determinations of coverage, improving methods of paying or
coverage policies, adjudication or subrogation of health benefit
claims;
(ii) Risk adjusting amounts due based on enrollee health status and
demographic characteristics;
(iii) Billing, claims management, and medical data processing;
(iv) Review of health care services with respect to medical
necessity, coverage under a health plan, appropriateness of care, or
justification of charges; and
(v) Utilization review activities, including precertification and
preauthorization of services.
Protected health information means individually identifiable health
information that is or has been electronically transmitted or
electronically maintained by a covered entity and includes such
information in any other form.
(1) For purposes of this definition,
(i) ``Electronically transmitted'' includes information exchanged
with a computer using electronic media, such as the movement of
information from one location to another by magnetic or optical media,
transmissions over the Internet, Extranet, leased lines, dial-up lines,
private networks, telephone voice response, and ``faxback'' systems.
(ii) ``Electronically maintained'' means information stored by a
computer or on any electronic medium from which information may be
retrieved by a computer, such as electronic memory chips, magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, or compact disc optical media.
(2) ``Protected health information'' excludes:
(i) Individually identifiable health information in education
records covered by the Family Educational Right and Privacy Act, as
amended, 20 U.S.C. 1232g; and
(ii) Individually identifiable health information of inmates of
correctional facilities and detainees in detention facilities.
Public health authority means an agency or authority of the United
States, a State, a territory, a political subdivision of a State or
territory, or an Indian tribe that is responsible for public health
matters as part of its official mandate.
Research means a systematic investigation, including research
development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute
to generalizable knowledge. ``Generalizable knowledge'' is knowledge
related to health that can be applied to populations outside of the
population served by the covered entity.
Treatment means the provision of health care by, or the
coordination of health care (including health care management of the
individual through risk assessment, case management, and disease
management) among, health care providers; the referral of a patient
from one provider to another; or the coordination of health care or
other services among health care providers and third parties authorized
by the health plan or the individual.
Use means the employment, application, utilization, examination, or
analysis of information within an entity that holds the information.
Workforce means employees, volunteers, trainees, and other persons
under the direct control of a covered entity, including persons
providing labor on an unpaid basis.
Sec. 164.506 Uses and disclosures of protected health information:
general rules.
(a) Standard. A covered entity may not use or disclose an
individual's protected health information, except as otherwise
permitted or required by this part or as required to comply with
applicable requirements of this subchapter.
(1) Permitted uses and disclosures. A covered entity is permitted
to use or disclose protected health information as follows:
(i) Except for research information unrelated to treatment, to
carry out treatment, payment, or health care operations;
(ii) Pursuant to an authorization by the individual that complies
with Sec. 164.508; or
(iii) As permitted by and in compliance with this section or
Sec. 164.510.
[[Page 60054]]
(2) Required disclosures. A covered entity is required to disclose
protected health information:
(i) To an individual, when a request is made under Sec. 164.514; or
(ii) When required by the Secretary under Sec. 164.522 to
investigate or determine the entity's compliance with this part.
(b)(1) Standard: Minimum necessary. A covered entity must make all
reasonable efforts not to use or disclose more than the minimum amount
of protected health information necessary to accomplish the intended
purpose of the use or disclosure. This requirement does not apply to
uses or disclosures that are:
(i) Made in accordance with Secs. 164.508(a)(1), 164.514, or
Sec. 164.522;
(ii) Required by law and permitted under Sec. 164.510;
(iii) Required for compliance with applicable requirements of this
subchapter; or
(iv) Made by a covered health care provider to a covered health
plan, when the information is requested for audit and related purposes.
(2) Implementation specification: Procedures. To comply with the
standard in this paragraph, a covered entity must have procedures to:
(i) Identify appropriate persons within the entity to determine
what information should be used or disclosed consistent with the
minimum necessary standard;
(ii) Ensure that the persons identified under paragraph (b)(2)(i)
of this section make the minimum necessary determinations, when
required;
(iii) Within the limits of the entity's technological capabilities,
provide for the making of such determinations individually.
(3) Implementation specification: Reliance. When making disclosures
to public officials that are permitted under Sec. 164.510 but not
required by other law, a covered entity may reasonably rely on the
representations of such officials that the information requested is the
minimum necessary for the stated purpose(s).
(c)(1) Standard: Right of an individual to restrict uses and
disclosures. (i) A covered entity that is a health care provider must
permit individuals to request that uses or disclosures of protected
health information for treatment, payment, or health care operations be
restricted, and, if the requested restrictions are agreed to by the
provider, not make uses or disclosures inconsistent with such
restrictions.
(ii) This requirement does not apply:
(A) To uses or disclosures permitted under Sec. 164.510;
(B) When the health care services provided are emergency services
or the information is requested pursuant to Sec. 164.510(k) and
(C) To disclosures to the Secretary pursuant to Sec. 164.522.
(iii) A provider is not required to agree to a requested
restriction.
(2) Implementation specifications. A covered entity must have
procedures that:
(i) Provide individuals an opportunity to request a restriction on
the uses and disclosures of their protected health information;
(ii) Provide that restrictions that are agreed to by the entity are
reduced to writing or otherwise documented;
(iii) Enable the entity to honor such restrictions; and
(iv) Provide for the notification of others to whom such
information is disclosed of such restriction.
(d)(1) Standard: use or disclosure of de-identified protected
health information. The requirements of this subpart do not apply to
protected health information that a covered entity has de-identified,
provided, however, that:
(i) Disclosure of a key or other device designed to enable coded or
otherwise de-identified information to be re-identified constitutes
disclosure of protected health information; and
(ii) If a covered entity re-identifies de-identified information,
it may use or disclose such re-identified information only in
accordance with this subpart.
(2) Implementation specifications. (i) A covered entity may use
protected health information to create de-identified information by
removing, coding, encrypting, or otherwise eliminating or concealing
the information that makes such information individually identifiable.
(ii) Information is presumed not to be individually identifiable
(de-identified), if:
(A) The following identifiers have been removed or otherwise
concealed:
(1) Name;
(2) Address, including street address, city, county, zip code, and
equivalent geocodes;
(3) Names of relatives;
(4) Name of employers;
(5) Birth date;
(6) Telephone numbers;
(7) Fax numbers;
(8) Electronic mail addresses;
(9) Social security number;
(10) Medical record number;
(11) Health plan beneficiary number;
(12) Account number;
(13) Certificate/license number;
(14) Any vehicle or other device serial number;
(15) Web Universal Resource Locator (URL);
(16) Internet Protocol (IP) address number;
(17) Finger or voice prints;
(18) Photographic images; and
(19) Any other unique identifying number, characteristic, or code
that the covered entity has reason to believe may be available to an
anticipated recipient of the information; and
(B) The covered entity has no reason to believe that any
anticipated recipient of such information could use the information,
alone or in combination with other information, to identify an
individual.
(iii) Notwithstanding paragraph (d)(2)(ii) of this section,
entities with appropriate statistical experience and expertise may
treat information as de-identified, if they include information listed
in paragraph (d)(2)(ii) of this section and they determine that the
probability of identifying individuals with such identifying
information retained is very low, or may remove additional information,
if they have a reasonable basis to believe such additional information
could be used to identify an individual.
(e)(1) Standards: Business partners. (i) Except for disclosures of
protected health information by a covered entity that is a health care
provider to another health care provider for consultation or referral
purposes, a covered entity may not disclose protected health
information to a business partner without satisfactory assurance from
the business partner that it will appropriately safeguard the
information.
(ii) A covered entity must take reasonable steps to ensure that
each business partner complies with the requirements of this subpart
with respect to any task or other activity it performs on behalf of the
entity, to the extent the covered entity would be required to comply
with such requirements.
(2) Implementation specifications. (i) For the purposes of this
section, satisfactory assurance means a contract between the covered
entity and the business partner to which such information is to be
disclosed that establishes the permitted and required uses and
disclosures of such information by the partner. The contract must
provide that the business partner will:
(A) Not use or further disclose the information other than as
permitted or required by the contract;
(B) Not use or further disclose the information in a manner that
would violate the requirements of this subpart, if done by the covered
entity;
[[Page 60055]]
(C) Use appropriate safeguards to prevent use or disclosure of the
information other than as provided for by its contract;
(D) Report to the covered entity any use or disclosure of the
information not provided for by its contract of which it becomes aware;
(E) Ensure that any subcontractors or agents to whom it provides
protected health information received from the covered entity agree to
the same restrictions and conditions that apply to the business partner
with respect to such information;
(F) Make available protected health information in accordance with
Sec. 164.514(a);
(G) Make its internal practices, books, and records relating to the
use and disclosure of protected health information received from the
covered entity available to the Secretary for purposes of determining
the covered entity's compliance with this subpart;
(H) At termination of the contract, return or destroy all protected
health information received from the covered entity that the business
partner still maintains in any form and retain no copies of such
information; and
(I) Incorporate any amendments or corrections to protected health
information when notified pursuant to Sec. 164.516(c)(3).
(ii) The contract required by paragraph (e)(2)(i) of this section
must:
(A) State that the individuals whose protected health information
is disclosed under the contract are intended third party beneficiaries
of the contract; and
(B) Authorize the covered entity to terminate the contract, if the
covered entity determines that the business partner has violated a
material term of the contract required by this paragraph.
(iii) A material breach by a business partner of its obligations
under the contract required by paragraph (e)(2)(i) of this section will
be considered to be noncompliance of the covered entity with the
applicable requirements of this subpart, if the covered entity knew or
reasonably should have known of such breach and failed to take
reasonable steps to cure the breach or terminate the contract.
(f) Standard: Deceased individuals. A covered entity must comply
with the requirements of this subpart with respect to the protected
health information of a deceased individual for two years following the
death of such individual. This requirement does not apply to uses or
disclosures for research purposes.
(g) Standard: uses and disclosures consistent with notice. Except
as provided by Sec. 164.520(g)(2), a covered entity that is required by
Sec. 164.512 to have a notice may not use or disclose protected health
information in a manner inconsistent with such notice.
Sec. 164.508 Uses and disclosures for which individual authorization
is required.
(a) Standard. An authorization executed in accordance with this
section is required in order for the covered entity to use or disclose
protected health information in the following situations:
(1) Request by individual. Where the individual requests the
covered entity to use or disclose the information.
(2) Request by covered entity. (i) Where the covered entity
requests the individual to authorize the use or disclosure of the
information. The covered entity must request and obtain an
authorization from the individual for all uses and disclosures that are
not:
(A) Except as provided in paragraph (a)(3) of this section,
compatible with or directly related to treatment, payment, or health
care operations;
(B) Covered by Sec. 164.510;
(C) Covered by paragraph (a)(1) of this section; or
(D) Required by this subpart.
(ii) Uses and disclosures of protected health information for which
individual authorization is required include, but are not limited to,
the following:
(A) Use for marketing of health and non-health items and services
by the covered entity;
(B) Disclosure by sale, rental, or barter;
(C) Use and disclosure to non-health related divisions of the
covered entity, e.g., for use in marketing life or casualty insurance
or banking services;
(D) Disclosure, prior to an individual's enrollment in a health
plan, to the health plan or health care provider for making eligibility
or enrollment determinations relating to the individual or for
underwriting or risk rating determinations;
(E) Disclosure to an employer for use in employment determinations;
and
(F) Use or disclosure for fundraising purposes.
(iii) A covered entity may not condition the provision to an
individual of treatment or payment on the provision by the individual
of a requested authorization for use or disclosure, except where the
authorization is requested in connection with a clinical trial.
(iv) Except where required by law, a covered entity may not require
an individual to sign an authorization for use or disclosure of
protected health information for treatment, payment, or health care
operations purposes.
(3) Authorization required: Special cases. (i) Except as otherwise
required by this subpart or permitted under Sec. 164.510, a covered
entity must obtain the authorization of the individual for the
following uses and disclosures of protected health information about
the individual:
(A) Use by a person other than the creator, or disclosure, of
psychotherapy notes; and
(B) Use or disclosure of research information unrelated to
treatment.
(ii) The requirements of paragraphs (b) through (e) of this section
apply to such authorizations, as appropriate.
(iii) A covered entity may not condition treatment, enrollment in a
health plan, or payment on a requirement that the individual authorize
use or disclosure of psychotherapy notes relating to the individual.
(iv) For purposes of this section:
(A) Psychotherapy notes means notes recorded (in any medium) by a
health care provider who is a mental health professional documenting or
analyzing the contents of conversation during a private counseling
session or a group, joint, or family counseling session. For purposes
of this definition, ``psychotherapy notes'' excludes medication
prescription and monitoring, counseling session start and stop times,
the modalities and frequencies of treatment furnished, results of
clinical tests, and any summary of the following items: diagnosis,
functional status, the treatment plan, symptoms, prognosis and progress
to date.
(B) Research information unrelated to treatment means health
information that is received or created by a covered entity in the
course of conducting research, for which there is insufficient
scientific and medical evidence regarding the validity or utility of
the information such that it should not be used for the purpose of
providing health care, and with respect to which the covered entity has
not requested payment from a third party payor.
(b) General implementation specifications for authorizations.--(1)
General requirements. A copy of the model form which appears in
Appendix A hereto, or a document that contains the elements listed in
paragraphs (c) or (d) of this section, as applicable, must be accepted
by the covered entity.
(2) Defective authorizations. There is no ``authorization'' within
the meaning of this section, if the submitted form has any of the
following defects:
(i) The expiration date has passed;
(ii) The form has not been filled out completely;
[[Page 60056]]
(iii) The authorization is known by the covered entity to have been
revoked;
(iv) The form lacks an element required by paragraph (c) or (d) of
this section, as applicable;
(v) The information on the form is known by the covered entity to
be false.
(3) Compound authorizations. Except where authorization is
requested in connection with a clinical trial, an authorization for use
or disclosure of protected health information for purposes other than
treatment or payment may not be in the same document as an
authorization for or consent to treatment or payment.
(c) Implementation specifications for authorizations requested by
an individual.--(1) Required elements. Before a covered entity may use
or disclose protected health information of an individual pursuant to a
request from the individual, it must obtain a completed authorization
for use or disclosure executed by the individual that contains at least
the following elements:
(i) A description of the information to be used or disclosed that
identifies the information in a specific and meaningful fashion;
(ii) The name of the covered entity, or class of entities or
persons, authorized to make the requested use or disclosure;
(iii) The name or other specific identification of the person(s) or
entity(ies), which may include the covered entity itself, to whom the
covered entity may make the requested use or disclosure;
(iv) An expiration date;
(v) Signature and date;
(vi) If the authorization is executed by a legal representative or
other person authorized to act for the individual, a description of his
or her authority to act or relationship to the individual;
(vii) A statement in which the individual acknowledges that he or
she has the right to revoke the authorization, except to the extent
that information has already been released under the authorization; and
(viii) A statement in which the individual acknowledges that
information used or disclosed to any entity other than a health plan or
health care provider may no longer be protected by the federal privacy
law.
(2) Plain language requirement. The model form at appendix A to
this subpart may be used. If the model form at appendix A to this
subpart is not used, the authorization form must be written in plain
language.
(d) Implementation specifications for authorizations for uses and
disclosures requested by covered entities.--(1) Required elements.
Before a covered entity may use or disclose protected health
information of an individual pursuant to a request that it has made, it
must obtain a completed authorization for use or disclosure executed by
the individual that meets the requirements of paragraph (c) of this
section and contains the following additional elements:
(i) Except where the authorization is requested for a clinical
trial, a statement that it will not condition treatment or payment on
the individual's providing authorization for the requested use or
disclosure;
(ii) A description of the purpose(s) of the requested use or
disclosure;
(iii) A statement that the individual may:
(A) Inspect or copy the protected health information to be used or
disclosed as provided in Sec. 164.514; and
(B) Refuse to sign the authorization; and
(iv) Where use or disclosure of the requested information will
result in financial gain to the entity, a statement that such gain will
result.
(2) Required procedures. In requesting authorization from an
individual under this paragraph, a covered entity must:
(i) Have procedures designed to enable it to request only the
minimum amount of protected health information necessary to accomplish
the purpose for which the request is made; and
(ii) Provide the individual with a copy of the executed
authorization.
(e) Revocation of authorizations. An individual may revoke an
authorization to use or disclose his or her protected health
information at any time, except to the extent that the covered entity
has taken action in reliance thereon.
Sec. 164.510 Uses and disclosures for which individual authorization
is not required.
A covered entity may use or disclose protected health information,
for purposes other than treatment, payment, or health care operations,
without the authorization of the individual, in the situations covered
by this section and subject to the applicable requirements provided for
by this section.
(a) General requirements. In using or disclosing protected health
information under this section:
(1) Verification. A covered entity must comply with any applicable
verification requirements under Sec. 164.518(c).
(2) Health care clearinghouses. A health care clearinghouse that
uses or discloses protected health information it maintains as a
business partner of a covered entity may not make uses or disclosures
otherwise permitted under this section that are not permitted by the
terms of its contract with the covered entity under Sec. 164.506(e).
(b) Disclosures and uses for public health activities.--(1)
Permitted disclosures. A covered entity may disclose protected health
information for the public health activities and purposes described in
this paragraph to:
(i) A public health authority that is authorized by law to collect
or receive such information for the purpose of preventing or
controlling disease, injury, or disability, including, but not limited
to, the reporting of disease, injury, vital events such as birth or
death, and the conduct of public health surveillance, public health
investigations, and public health interventions;
(ii) A public health authority or other appropriate authority
authorized by law to receive reports of child abuse or neglect;
(iii) A person or entity other than a governmental authority that
can demonstrate or demonstrates that it is acting to comply with
requirements or direction of a public health authority; or
(iv) A person who may have been exposed to a communicable disease
or may otherwise be at risk of contracting or spreading a disease or
condition and is authorized by law to be notified as necessary in the
conduct of a public health intervention or investigation.
(2) Permitted use. Where the covered entity also is a public health
authority, the covered entity is permitted to use protected health
information in all cases in which it is permitted to disclose such
information for public health activities under paragraph (b)(1) of this
section.
(c) Disclosures and uses for health oversight activities.--(1)
Permitted disclosures. A covered entity may disclose protected health
information to a health oversight agency for oversight activities
authorized by law, including audit, investigation, inspection, civil,
criminal, or administrative proceeding or action, or other activity
necessary for appropriate oversight of:
(i) The health care system;
(ii) Government benefit programs for which health information is
relevant to beneficiary eligibility; or
(iii) Government regulatory programs for which health information
is necessary for determining compliance with program standards.
(2) Permitted use. Where a covered entity is itself a health
oversight agency, the covered entity may use protected health
information for health oversight activities described by paragraph
(c)(1) of this section.
(d) Disclosures and uses for judicial and administrative
proceedings.--(1) Permitted disclosures. A covered entity may disclose
protected health
[[Page 60057]]
information in the course of any judicial or administrative proceeding:
(i) In response to an order of a court or administrative tribunal;
or
(ii) Where the individual is a party to the proceeding and his or
her medical condition or history is at issue and the disclosure is
pursuant to lawful process or otherwise authorized by law.
(2) Permitted use. Where the covered entity is itself a government
agency, the covered entity may use protected health information in all
cases in which it is permitted to disclose such information in the
course of any judicial or administrative proceeding under paragraph
(d)(1) of this section.
(3) Additional restriction. (i) Where the request for disclosure of
protected health information is accompanied by a court order, the
covered entity may disclose only that protected health information
which the court order authorizes to be disclosed.
(ii) Where the request for disclosure of protected health
information is not accompanied by a court order, the covered entity may
not disclose the information requested unless a request authorized by
law has been made by the agency requesting the information or by legal
counsel representing a party to litigation, with a written statement
certifying that the protected health information requested concerns a
litigant to the proceeding and that the health condition of such
litigant is at issue at such proceeding.
(e) Disclosures to coroners and medical examiners. A covered entity
may disclose protected health information to a coroner or medical
examiner, consistent with applicable law, for the purposes of
identifying a deceased person or determining a cause of death.
(f) Disclosures for law enforcement purposes. A covered entity may
disclose protected health information to a law enforcement official if:
(1) Pursuant to process. (i) The law enforcement official is
conducting or supervising a law enforcement inquiry or proceeding
authorized by law and the disclosure is:
(A) Pursuant to a warrant, subpoena, or order issued by a judicial
officer that documents a finding by the judicial officer;
(B) Pursuant to a grand jury subpoena; or
(C) Pursuant to an administrative request, including an
administrative subpoena or summons, a civil investigative demand, or
similar process authorized under law, provided that:
(1) The information sought is relevant and material to a legitimate
law enforcement inquiry;
(2) The request is as specific and narrowly drawn as is reasonably
practicable; and
(3) De-identified information could not reasonably be used.
(ii) For the purposes of this paragraph, ``law enforcement inquiry
or proceeding'' means:
(A) An investigation or official proceeding inquiring into a
violation of, or failure to comply with, law; or
(B) A criminal, civil, or administrative proceeding arising from a
violation of, or failure to comply with, law.
(2) Limited information for identifying purposes. The disclosure is
for the purpose of identifying a suspect, fugitive, material witness,
or missing person, provided that, the covered entity may disclose only
the following information:
(i) Name;
(ii) Address;
(iii) Social security number;
(iv) Date of birth;
(v) Place of birth;
(vi) Type of injury or other distinguishing characteristic; and
(vii) Date and time of treatment.
(3) Information about a victim of crime or abuse. The disclosure is
of the protected health information of an individual who is or is
suspected to be a victim of a crime, abuse, or other harm, if the law
enforcement official represents that:
(i) Such information is needed to determine whether a violation of
law by a person other than the victim has occurred; and
(ii) Immediate law enforcement activity that depends upon obtaining
such information may be necessary.
(4) Intelligence and national security activities. The disclosure
is:
(i) For the conduct of lawful intelligence activities conducted
pursuant to the National Security Act (50 U.S.C. 401, et seq.);
(ii) Made in connection with providing protective services to the
President or other persons pursuant to 18 U.S.C. 3056; or
(iii) Made pursuant to 22 U.S.C. 2709(a)(3).
(5) Health care fraud. The covered entity believes in good faith
that the information disclosed constitutes evidence of criminal
conduct:
(i) That arises out of and is directly related to:
(A) The receipt of health care or payment for health care,
including a fraudulent claim for health care;
(B) Qualification for or receipt of benefits, payments, or services
based on a fraudulent statement or material misrepresentation of the
health of the individual;
(ii) That occurred on the premises of the covered entity; or
(iii) Was witnessed by a member of the covered entity's workforce.
(5) Urgent circumstances. The disclosure is of the protected health
information of an individual who is or is suspected to be a victim of a
crime, abuse, or other harm, if the law enforcement official represents
that:
(i) Such information is needed to determine whether a violation of
law by a person other than the victim has occurred; and
(ii) Immediate law enforcement activity that depends upon obtaining
such information may be necessary.
(g) Disclosures and uses for governmental health data systems.--(1)
Permitted disclosures. A covered entity may disclose protected health
information to a government agency, or private entity acting on behalf
of a government agency, for inclusion in a governmental health data
system that collects health data for analysis in support of policy,
planning, regulatory, or management functions authorized by law.
(2) Permitted uses. Where a covered entity is itself a government
agency that collects health data for analysis in support of policy,
planning, regulatory, or management functions, the covered entity may
use protected health information in all cases in which it is permitted
to disclose such information for government health data systems under
paragraph (g)(1) of this section.
(h) Disclosures of directory information. (1) Individuals with
capacity. For individuals with the capacity to make their own health
care decisions, a covered entity that is a health care provider may
disclose protected health information for directory purposes, provided
that, the individual has agreed to such disclosure.
(2) Incapacitated individuals. For individuals who are
incapacitated, a covered entity that is a health care provider may, at
its discretion and consistent with good medical practice and any prior
expressions of preference of which the covered entity is aware,
disclose protected health information for directory purposes.
(3) Information to be disclosed. The information that may be
disclosed for directory purposes pursuant to paragraphs (h)(1) and (2)
of this section, is limited to:
(i) Name of the individual;
(ii) Location of the individual in the health care provider's
facility; and
(iii) Description of the individual's condition in general terms
that do not
[[Page 60058]]
communicate specific medical information about the individual.
(i) Disclosures for banking and payment processes. A covered entity
may disclose, in connection with routine banking activities or payment
by debit, credit, or other payment card, or other payment means, the
minimum amount of protected health information necessary to complete a
banking or payment activity to:
(1) Financial institutions. An entity engaged in the activities of
a financial institution (as defined in section 1101 of the Right to
Financial Privacy Act of 1978); or
(2) Entities acting on behalf of financial institutions. An entity
engaged in authorizing, processing, clearing, settling, billing,
transferring, reconciling, or collecting payments, for an entity
described in paragraph (i)(1) of this section.
(j) Uses and disclosures for research purposes. A covered entity
may use or disclose protected health information for research,
regardless of the source of funding of the research, provided that, the
covered entity has obtained written documentation of the following:
(1) Waiver of authorization. A waiver, in whole or in part, of
authorization for use or disclosure of protected health information
that has been approved by either:
(i) An Institutional Review Board, established in accordance with 7
CFR 1c.107, 10 CFR 745.107, 14 CFR 1230.107, 15 CFR 27.107, 16 CFR
1028.107, 21 CFR 56.107, 22 CFR 225.107, 28 CFR 46.107.32 CFR 219.107,
34 CFR 97.107, 38 CFR 16.107, 40 CFR 26.107.45 CFR 46.107, 45 CFR
690.107, or 49 CFR 11.107; or
(ii) A privacy board that:
(A) Has members with varying backgrounds and appropriate
professional competency as necessary to review the research protocol;
(B) Includes at least one member who is not affiliated with the
entity conducting the research or related to a person who is affiliated
with such entity; and
(C) Does not have any member participating in a review of any
project in which the member has a conflict of interest.
(2) Date of approval. The date of approval of the waiver, in whole
or in part, of authorization by an Institutional Review Board or
privacy board.
(3) Criteria. The Institutional Review Board or privacy board has
determined that the waiver, in whole or in part, of authorization
satisfies the following criteria:
(i) The use or disclosure of protected health information involves
no more than minimal risk to the subjects;
(ii) The waiver will not adversely affect the rights and welfare of
the subjects;
(iii) The research could not practicably be conducted without the
waiver;
(iv) Whenever appropriate, the subjects will be provided with
additional pertinent information after participation;
(v) The research could not practicably be conducted without access
to and use of the protected health information;
(vi) The research is of sufficient importance so as to outweigh the
intrusion of the privacy of the individual whose information is subject
to the disclosure;
(vii) There is an adequate plan to protect the identifiers from
improper use and disclosure; and
(viii) There is an adequate plan to destroy the identifiers at the
earliest opportunity consistent with conduct of the research, unless
there is a health or research justification for retaining the
identifiers.
(4) Required signature. The written documentation must be signed by
the chair of, as applicable, the Institutional Review Board or the
privacy board.
(k) Uses and disclosures in emergency circumstances.--(1) Permitted
disclosures. A covered entity may, consistent with applicable law and
standards of ethical conduct and based on a reasonable belief that the
use or disclosure is necessary to prevent or lessen a serious and
imminent threat to the health or safety of an individual or the public,
use or disclose protected health information to a person or persons
reasonably able to prevent or lessen the threat, including the target
of the threat.
(2) Presumption of reasonable belief. A covered entity that makes a
disclosure pursuant to paragraph (k)(1) of this section is presumed to
have acted under a reasonable belief, if the disclosure is made in good
faith based upon a credible representation by a person with apparent
knowledge or authority (such as a doctor or law enforcement or other
government official).
(l) Disclosures to next-of-kin.--(1) Permitted disclosures. A
covered entity may disclose protected health information to a person
who is a next-of-kin, other family member, or close personal friend of
an individual who possesses the capacity to make his or her own health
care decisions, if:
(i) The individual has verbally agreed to the disclosure; or
(ii) In circumstances where such agreement cannot practicably or
reasonably be obtained, only the protected health information that is
directly relevant to the person's involvement in the individual's
health care is disclosed, consistent with good health professional
practices and ethics.
(2) Next-of-kin defined. For purposes of this paragraph, ``next-of-
kin'' is defined as defined under applicable law.
(m) Uses and disclosures for specialized classes.--(1) Military
purposes. A covered entity that is a health care provider or health
plan providing health care to individuals who are Armed Forces
personnel may use and disclose protected health information for
activities deemed necessary by appropriate military command authorities
to assure the proper execution of the military mission, where the
appropriate military authority has published by notice in the Federal
Register the following information:
(i) Appropriate military command authorities;
(ii) The circumstances for which use or disclosure without
individual authorization would be required; and
(iii) Activities for which such use or disclosure would occur in
order to assure proper execution of the military mission.
(2) Department of Veterans Affairs. The Department of Veterans
Affairs may use and disclose protected health information among
components of the Department that determine eligibility for or
entitlement to, or that provide, benefits under laws administered by
the Secretary of Veterans Affairs.
(3) Intelligence community. A covered entity may disclose protected
health information of an individual who is an employee of the
intelligence community, as defined in section 4 of the National
Security Act, 50 U.S.C. 401a, and his or her dependents, if such
dependents are being considered for posting abroad, to intelligence
community agencies, where authorized by law.
(4) Department of State. The Department of State may use protected
health information about the following individuals for the following
purposes:
(i) As to applicants to the Foreign Service, for medical clearance
determinations about physical fitness to serve in the Foreign Service
on a worldwide basis, including about medical and mental conditions
limiting assignability abroad; determinations of conformance to
occupational physical standards, where applicable; and determinations
of suitability.
[[Page 60059]]
(ii) As to members of the Foreign Service and other United States
Government employees assigned to serve abroad under Chief of Mission
authority, for medical clearance determinations for assignment to posts
abroad, including medical and mental conditions limiting such
assignment; determinations of conformance to occupational physical
standards, where applicable; determinations about continued fitness for
duty, suitability, and continuation of service at post (including
decisions on curtailment); separation medical examinations; and
determinations of eligibility of members of the Foreign Service for
disability retirement (whether on application of the employee or the
Secretary of State).
(iii) As to eligible family members of Foreign Service or other
United States Government employees, for medical clearance
determinations as described in paragraph (m)(4)(ii) of this section to
permit eligible family members to accompany employees to posts abroad
on Government orders; determinations regarding family members remaining
at post; and separation medical examinations.
(n) Uses and disclosures otherwise required by law. A covered
entity may use or disclose protected health information where such use
or disclosure is required by law and the use or disclosure meets all
relevant requirements of such law. This paragraph does not apply to
uses or disclosures that are covered by paragraphs (b) through (m) of
this section.
Sec. 164.512 Notice to individuals of information practices.
(a) Standard. An individual has a right to adequate notice of the
policies and procedures of a covered entity that is a health plan or a
health care provider with respect to protected health information.
(b) Standard for notice procedures. A covered entity that is a
health plan or health care provider must have procedures that provide
adequate notice to individuals of their rights and the procedures for
exercising their rights under this subpart with respect to protected
health information about them.
(c) General implementation specification. A covered entity that has
and follows procedures that meet the requirements of this section will
be presumed to have provided adequate notice under this section.
(d) Implementation specifications: content of notice.--(1) Required
elements. Notices required to be provided under this section must
include in plain language a statement of each of the following
elements:
(i) Uses and disclosures. The uses and disclosures, and the
entity's policies and procedures with respect to such uses and
disclosures, must be described in sufficient detail to put the
individual on notice of the uses and disclosures expected to be made of
his or her protected health information. Such statement must:
(A) Describe the uses and disclosures that will be made without
individual authorization; and
(B) Distinguish between those uses and disclosures the entity makes
that are required by law and those that are permitted but not required
by law.
(ii) Required statements. State that:
(A) Other uses and disclosures will be made only with the
individual's authorization and that such authorization may be revoked;
(B) An individual may request that certain uses and disclosures of
his or her protected health information be restricted, and the covered
entity is not required to agree to such a request;
(C) An individual has the right to request, and a description of
the procedures for exercising, the following with respect to his or her
protected health information:
(1) Inspection and copying;
(2) Amendment or correction; and
(3) An accounting of the disclosures of such information by the
covered entity;
(D) The covered entity is required by law to protect the privacy of
its individually identifiable health information, provide a notice of
its policies and procedures with respect to such information, and abide
by the terms of the notice currently in effect;
(E) The entity may change its policies and procedures relating to
protected health information at any time, with a description of how
individuals will be informed of material changes; and
(F) Individuals may complain to the covered entity and to the
Secretary if they believe that their privacy rights have been violated.
(iii) Contact. The name and telephone number of a contact person or
office required by Sec. 164.518(a)(2).
(iv) Date. The date the version of the notice was produced.
(2) Revisions. A covered health plan or health care provider may
change its policies or procedures required by this subpart at any time.
When a covered health plan or health care provider materially revises
its policies and procedures, it must update its notice as provided for
by Sec. 164.520(g).
(e) Implementation specifications: Provision of notice. A covered
entity must make the notice required by this section available:
(1) General requirement. On request; and
(2) Specific requirements. As follows:
(i) Health plans. Health plans must provide a copy of the notice to
an individual covered by the plan:
(A) As of the date on which the health plan is required to be in
compliance with this subpart;
(B) After the date described in paragraph (e)(2)(i)(A) of this
section, at enrollment;
(C) After enrollment, within 60 days of a material revision to the
content of the notice; and
(D) No less frequently than once every three years.
(ii) Health care providers. A health care provider must:
(A) During the one year period following the date by which the
provider is required to come into compliance with this subpart, provide
a copy to individuals currently served by the provider at the first
service delivery to such individuals during such period, provided that,
where service is not provided through a face-to-face contact, the
provider must provide the notice in an appropriate manner within a
reasonable period of time following first service delivery;
(B) After the one year period provided for by paragraph
(e)(2)(ii)(A) of this section, provide a copy to individuals served by
the provider at the first service delivery to such individuals,
provided that, where service is not provided through a face-to-face
contact, the provider must provide the notice in an appropriate manner
within a reasonable period of time following first service delivery;
and
(C) Post a copy of the notice in a clear and prominent location
where it is reasonable to expect individuals seeking service from the
provider to be able to read the notice. Any revision to the notice must
be posted promptly.
Sec. 164.514 Access of individuals to protected health information
(a) Standard: Right of access. An individual has a right of access
to, which includes a right to inspect and obtain a copy of, his or her
protected health information in designated record sets of a covered
entity that is a health plan or a health care provider, including such
information in a business partner's designated record set that is not a
duplicate of the information held by the provider or plan, for so long
as the information is maintained.
(b) Standard: denial of access to protected health information.--
(1) Grounds. Except where the protected
[[Page 60060]]
health information to which access is requested is subject to 5 U.S.C.
552a, a covered entity may deny a request for access under paragraph
(a) of this section where:
(i) A licensed health care professional has determined that, in the
exercise of reasonable professional judgment, the inspection and
copying requested is reasonably likely to endanger the life or physical
safety of the individual or another person;
(ii) The information is about another person (other than a health
care provider) and a licensed health care professional has determined
that the inspection and copying requested is reasonably likely to cause
substantial harm to such other person;
(iii) The information was obtained under a promise of
confidentiality from someone other than a health care provider and such
access would be likely to reveal the source of the information;
(iv) The information was obtained by a covered entity that is a
health care provider in the course of a clinical trial, the individual
has agreed to the denial of access when consenting to participate in
the trial (if the individual's consent to participate was obtained),
and the clinical trial is in progress; or
(v) The information was compiled in reasonable anticipation of, or
for use in, a legal proceeding.
(2) Other information available. Where a denial of protected health
information is made pursuant to paragraph (b)(1) of this section, the
covered entity must make any other protected health information
requested available to the individual to the extent possible consistent
with the denial.
(c) Standard: procedures to protect rights of access. A covered
entity that is a health plan or a health care provider must have
procedures that enable individuals to exercise their rights under
paragraph (a) of this section.
(d) Implementation specifications: Access to protected health
information. The procedures required by paragraph (c) of this section
must:
(1) Means of request. Provide a means by which an individual can
request inspection or a copy of protected health information about him
or her.
(2) Time limit. Provide for taking action on such requests as soon
as possible but not later than 30 days following receipt of the
request.
(3) Request accepted. Where the request is accepted, provide:
(i) For notification of the individual of the decision and of any
steps necessary to fulfill the request;
(ii) The information requested in the form or format requested, if
it is readily producible in such form or format;
(iii) For facilitating the process of inspection and copying; and
(iv) For a reasonable, cost-based fee for copying health
information provided pursuant to this paragraph, if deemed desirable by
the entity.
(4) Request denied. Where the request is denied in whole or in
part, provide the individual with a written statement in plain language
of:
(i) The basis for the denial; and
(ii) A description of how the individual may complain to the
covered entity pursuant to the complaint procedures established in
Sec. 164.518(d)(2) or to the Secretary pursuant to the procedures
established in Sec. 164.522(b). The description must include:
(A) The name and telephone number of the contact person or office
required by Sec. 164.518(a)(2) of this subpart; and
(B) Information relevant to filing a complaint with the Secretary
under Sec. 164.522(b).
Sec. 164.515 Accounting for disclosures of protected health
information.
(a) Standard: Right to an accounting of disclosures of protected
health information. An individual has a right to receive an accounting
of all disclosures of protected health information made by a covered
entity as long as such information is maintained by the entity, except
for disclosures:
(1) For treatment, payment and health care operations; and
(2) To health oversight or law enforcement agencies, if the health
oversight or law enforcement agency has provided a written request
stating that the exclusion is necessary because disclosure would be
reasonably likely to impede the agency's activities and specifying the
time for which such exclusion is required.
(b) Standard: Procedures for accounting. A covered entity must have
procedures to give individuals an accurate accounting of disclosures
for which an accounting is required by paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) Implementation specifications: Accounting procedures. The
procedures required by paragraph (b) of this section must:
(1) Provide for an accounting of the following:
(i) The date of each disclosure;
(ii) The name and address of the organization or person who
received the protected health information;
(iii) A brief description of the information disclosed;
(iv) For disclosures other than those made at the request of the
individual, the purpose for which the information was disclosed; and
(v) Provision of copies of all requests for disclosure.
(2) Provide the accounting to the individual as soon as possible,
but no later than 30 days of receipt of the request therefor.
(3) Provide for a means of accounting for as long as the entity
maintains the protected health information.
(4) Provide for a means of requiring business partners to provide
such an accounting upon request of the covered entity.
Sec. 164.516 Amendment and correction.
(a) Standard: right to request amendment or correction.--(1) Right
to request. An individual has the right to request a covered entity
that is a health plan or health care provider to amend or correct
protected health information about him or her in designated record sets
of the covered entity for as long as the covered entity maintains the
information.
(2) Grounds for denial of request. A covered entity may deny a
request for amendment or correction of the individual's protected
health information, if it determines that the information that is the
subject of the request:
(i) Was not created by the covered entity;
(ii) Would not be available for inspection and copying under
Sec. 164.514 or
(iii) Is accurate and complete.
(b) Standard: Amendment and correction procedures. A covered entity
that is a health plan or health care provider must have procedures to
enable individuals to request amendment or correction, to determine
whether the requests should be granted or denied, and to disseminate
amendments or corrections to its business partners and others to whom
erroneous information has been disclosed.
(c) Implementation specifications: Procedures. The procedures
required by paragraph (b) of this section must provide that the covered
entity will:
(1) Means of request. Provide a means by which an individual can
request amendment or correction of his or her protected health
information.
(2) Time limit. Take action on such request within 60 days of
receipt of the request;
(3) Request accepted. Where the request is accepted in whole or in
part:
(i) As otherwise required by this part, make the appropriate
amendments or corrections;
(ii) As otherwise required by this part, identify the challenged
entries as
[[Page 60061]]
amended or corrected and indicate their location;
(iii) Make reasonable efforts to notify:
(A) Persons, organizations, or other entities the individual
identifies as needing to be notified; and (B) Persons, organizations,
or other entities, including business partners, who the covered entity
knows have received the erroneous or incomplete information and who may
have relied, or could foreseeably rely, on such information to the
detriment of the individual; and (iv) Notify the individual of the
decision to correct or amend the information.
(4) Request denied. Where the request is denied in whole or in
part:
(i) Provide the individual with a written statement in plain
language of:
(A) The basis for the denial;
(B) A description of how the individual may file a written
statement of disagreement with the denial; and
(C) A description of how the individual may complain to the covered
entity pursuant to the complaint procedures established in
Sec. 164.518(d) or to the Secretary pursuant to the procedures
established in Sec. 164.522(b). The description must include:
(1) The name and telephone number of the contact person or office
required by Sec. 164.518(a)(2); and
(2) Information relevant to filing a complaint with the Secretary
under Sec. 164.522(b).
(ii) The procedures of the covered entity must:
(A) Permit the individual to file a statement of the individual's
disagreement with the denial and the basis of such disagreement.
(B) Provide for inclusion of the covered entity's statement of
denial and the individual's statement of disagreement with any
subsequent disclosure of the information to which the disagreement
relates, provided, however, that the covered entity may establish a
limit to the length of the statement of disagreement, and may summarize
the statement of disagreement if necessary.
(C) Permit the covered entity to provide a rebuttal to the
statement of disagreement in subsequent disclosures under paragraph
(c)(4)(ii)(B) of this section.
(d) Standard: Effectuating a notice of amendment or correction. Any
covered entity that receives a notice of amendment or correction must
have procedures in place to make the amendment or correction in any of
its designated record sets and to notify its business partners, as
appropriate, of necessary amendments or corrections of protected health
information.
(e) Implementation specification: effectuating a notice of
amendment or correction. The procedures required by paragraph (d) of
this section must specify the process for correction or amendment of
information in all appropriate designated record sets maintained by the
covered entity and its business partners.
Sec. 164.518 Administrative requirements.
Except as otherwise provided, a covered entity must meet the
requirements of this section.
(a) Designated privacy official: standard.--(1) Responsibilities of
designated privacy official. A covered entity must designate a privacy
official who is responsible for the development and implementation of
the privacy policies and procedures of the entity.
(2) Contact person or office. A covered entity must designate a
contact person or office who is responsible for receiving complaints
under this section and who is able to provide further information about
matters covered by the notice required by Sec. 164.512. If a covered
entity designates a contact person, it may designate the privacy
official as the contact person.
(b) Training.--(1) Standard. All members of the covered entity's
workforce who, by virtue of their positions, are likely to obtain
access to protected health information must receive training on the
entity's policies and procedures required by this subpart that are
relevant to carrying out their function within the entity.
(2) Implementation specification. A covered entity must train all
members of its workforce who, by virtue of their positions, are likely
to obtain access to protected health information. Such training must
meet the following requirements:
(i) The training must occur:
(A) For members of the covered entity's workforce as of the date on
which this subpart becomes applicable to such entity, by such date; and
(B) For persons joining the covered entity's workforce after the
date in paragraph (b)(2)(i)(A) of this section, within a reasonable
period after the person joins the workforce.
(ii) The covered entity must require members of its workforce
trained as required by this section to sign, upon completing training,
a certification. The certification must state:
(A) The date of training; and
(B) That the person completing the training will honor all of the
entity's policies and procedures required by this subpart.
(iii) The covered entity must require members of its workforce
trained as required by this section to sign, at least once every three
years, a statement certifying that the person will honor all of the
entity's policies and procedures required by this subpart.
(iv) The covered entity must provide all members of its workforce
with access to protected health information within the entity with
further training, as relevant to their function within the entity,
whenever the entity materially changes its privacy policies or
procedures.
(c) Safeguards.--(1) Standard. A covered entity must have in place
appropriate administrative, technical, and physical safeguards to
protect the privacy of protected health information.
(2) Implementation specification: Verification procedures. A
covered entity must have administrative, technical, and physical
procedures in place to protect the privacy of protected health
information. Such procedures must include adequate procedures for
verification of the identity and/or authority, as required by this
subpart, of persons requesting such information, where such identity or
authority is not known to the entity, as follows:
(i) The covered entity must use procedures that are reasonably
likely to establish that the individual or person making the request
has the appropriate identity for the use or disclosure requested,
except for uses and disclosures that are:
(A) Permitted by this subpart and made on a routine basis to
persons or other entities with which the covered entity interacts in
the normal course of business or otherwise known to the covered entity;
or
(B) Covered by paragraphs (c)(2)(ii), (iii), or (iv) of this
section.
(ii) When the request for information is made by a government
agency under Sec. 164.510(b), Sec. 164.510(c), Sec. 164.510(e),
Sec. 164.510(f), Sec. 164.510(g), Sec. 164.510(m), Sec. 164.510(n), or
Sec. 164.522, and the identity and/or authority are not known to the
covered entity, the covered entity may not disclose such information
without reasonable evidence of identity and/or authority to obtain the
information.
(A) For purposes of this paragraph, ``reasonable evidence of
identity'' means:
(1) A written request on the agency's letterhead;
(2) Presentation of an agency identification badge or official
credentials; or
(3) Similar proof of government status.
(B) For purposes of this paragraph, reasonable evidence of
authority means:
[[Page 60062]]
(1) A written statement of the legal authority under which the
information is requested; a request for disclosure made by official
legal process issued by a grand jury or a judicial or administrative
body is presumed to constitute reasonable legal authority; or
(2) Where the request is made orally, an oral statement of such
authority.
(iii) When the request for information is made by a person or
entity acting on behalf of a government agency under Sec. 164.510(b),
Sec. 164.510(c), Sec. 164.510(g), or Sec. 164.510(n), and the identity
and/or authority are not known to the covered entity, the covered
entity may not disclose such information without reasonable evidence of
identity and/or authority to obtain the information.
(A) For the purposes of this paragraph, reasonable evidence of
identity means:
(1) A written statement from the government agency, on the agency's
letterhead, that the person or entity is acting under the agency's
authority; or
(2) Other evidence or documentation, such as a contract for
services, memorandum of understanding, or purchase order, that
establishes that the person or entity is acting on behalf of or under
the agency's authority.
(B) For the purposes of this paragraph, ``reasonable evidence of
authority'' means a statement that complies with paragraph (c)(ii)(B)
of this section.
(iv) For uses and disclosures under Sec. 164.510(d),
Sec. 164.510(h), or Sec. 164.510(j), compliance with the applicable
requirements of those sections constitutes adequate verification under
this section.
(v)(A) A covered entity may reasonably rely on evidence of identity
and legal authority that meets the requirements of this paragraph.
(B) Where presentation of particular documentation or statements
are required by this subpart as a condition of disclosure, a covered
entity may reasonably rely on documentation or statements that on their
face meet the applicable requirements.
(3) Implementation specification: Other safeguards. A covered
entity must have safeguards to ensure that information is not used in
violation of the requirements of this subpart or by members of its
workforce or components of the entity or employees and other persons
associated with, or components of, its business partners who are not
authorized to access the information.
(4) Implementation specification: Disclosures by whistleblowers. A
covered entity is not considered to have violated the requirements of
this subpart where a member of its workforce or an employee or other
person associated with a business partner discloses protected health
information that such member or other person believes is evidence of a
violation of law to:
(i) The law enforcement official or oversight agency authorized to
enforce such law; or
(ii) An attorney, for the purpose of determining whether a
violation of law has occurred or assessing what remedies or actions at
law may be available to the employee.
(d) Complaints to the covered entity--(1) Standard. A covered
entity that is a health plan or health care provider must provide a
process whereby individuals may make complaints concerning the entity's
compliance with the requirements established by this subpart.
(2) Implementation specifications. A covered entity that is a
health plan or health care provider must develop and implement
procedures under which an individual may file a complaint alleging that
the covered entity failed to comply with one or more requirements of
this subpart. Such procedures must provide for:
(i) The identification of the contact person or office required by
paragraph (a)(2) of this section; and
(ii) Maintenance by the covered entity of a record of all
complaints and their disposition, if any.
(e) Sanctions: Standard. A covered entity must develop and apply
when appropriate sanctions against members of its workforce who fail to
comply with the policies and procedures of the covered entity or the
requirements of this subpart in connection with protected health
information held by the covered entity or its business partners.
(f) Duty to mitigate: standard. A covered entity must have
procedures for mitigating, to the extent practicable, any deleterious
effect of a use or disclosure of protected health information in
violation of this subpart.
Sec. 164.520 Documentation of policies and procedures.
(a) Standard. A covered entity must adequately document its
compliance with the applicable requirements of this subpart.
(b) Implementation specification: General. A covered entity must
document its policies and procedures for complying with the applicable
requirements of this subpart. Such documentation must include, but is
not limited to, documentation that meets the requirements of paragraphs
(c) through (g) of this section.
(c) Implementation specification: Uses and disclosures. With
respect to uses by the covered entity or its business partners of
protected health information, a covered entity must document its
policies and procedures regarding:
(1) Uses and disclosures of such information, including:
(i) Uses and disclosures with authorization, including for
revocation of authorizations; and
(ii) Uses and disclosures without authorization, including:
(A) For treatment, payment, and health care operations;
(B) For disclosures to business partners, including monitoring and
mitigation; and
(C) For uses and disclosures pursuant to Sec. 164.510.
(2) For implementation of the minimum necessary requirement of
Sec. 164.506(b).
(3) For implementation of the right to request a restriction under
Sec. 164.506(c), including:
(A) Who, if anyone, in the covered entity is authorized to agree to
such a request; and
(B) How restrictions agreed to are implemented.
(4) For creation of de-identified information in accordance with
Sec. 164.506(d).
(d) Implementation specification: Individual rights. A covered
entity must document its policies and procedures under Secs. 164.512,
164.514, 164.515, and 164.516, as applicable, including:
(1) How notices will be disseminated in accordance with
Sec. 164.512;
(2) Designated record sets to which access will be granted under
Sec. 164.514;
(3) Grounds for denying requests for access under Sec. 164.514;
(4) Copying fees, if any;
(5) Procedures for providing accounting pursuant to Sec. 164.515;
(6) Procedures for accepting or denying requests for amendment or
correction under Sec. 164.516;
(7) How other entities will be notified of amendments or
corrections accepted under Sec. 164.516; and
(8) Identification of persons responsible for making decisions or
otherwise taking action, including serving as a contact person, under
Secs. 164.512, 164.514, 164.515, and 164.516.
(e) Implementation specification: Administrative requirements. A
covered entity must provide documentation of its procedures for
complying with Sec. 164.518, including:
(1) Identification of the persons or offices required by
Sec. 164.518(a) and their duties;
(2) Training provided as required by Sec. 164.518(b);
[[Page 60063]]
(3) How access to protected health information is regulated by the
covered entity and its business partners, including safeguards required
by Sec. 164.518(c);
(4) For a covered entity that is a health plan or health care
provider, for receiving complaints under Sec. 164.518(d);
(5) Sanctions, and the application thereof, required by
Sec. 164.518(e); and
(6) Procedures for mitigation under Sec. 164.518(f).
(f) Implementation specification: Specific documentation required.
A covered entity must retain documentation of the following for six
years from when the documentation is created, unless a longer period
applies under this subpart:
(1) Restrictions agreed to pursuant to Sec. 164.506(c);
(2) Contracts pursuant to Sec. 164.506(e);
(3) Authorization forms used pursuant to Sec. 164.508;
(4) Samples of all notices issued pursuant to Sec. 164.512;
(5) Written statements required by Sec. 164.514;
(6) The accounting required by Sec. 164.515;
(7) Documents relating to denials of requests for amendment and
correction pursuant to Sec. 164.516;
(8) Certifications under Sec. 164.518(b); and
(9) Complaints received and any responses thereto pursuant to
Sec. 164.518(d).
(g) Implementation specification: Change in policy or procedure.
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (g)(2) of this section, a covered
entity may not implement a change to a policy or procedure required or
permitted under this subpart until it has made the appropriate changes
to the documentation required by this section and the notice required
by Sec. 164.512.
(2) Where the covered entity determines that a compelling reason
exists to make a use or disclosure or take another action permitted
under this subpart that its notice and policies and procedures do not
permit, it may make the use or disclosure or take the other action if:
(1) It documents the reasons supporting the use, disclosure, or
other action; and
(2) Within 30 days of the use, disclosure, or other action, changes
its notice, policies and procedures to permit such use, disclosure, or
other action.
Sec. 164.522 Compliance and enforcement.
(a) Principles for achieving compliance.--(1) Cooperation. The
Secretary will, to the extent practicable, seek the cooperation of
covered entities in obtaining compliance with the requirements
established under this subpart.
(2) Assistance. The Secretary may provide technical assistance to
covered entities to help them comply voluntarily with this subpart.
(b) Individual complaints to the Secretary. An individual who
believes that a covered entity is not complying with the requirements
of this subpart may file a complaint with the Secretary, provided that,
where the complaint relates to the alleged failure of a covered entity
to amend or correct protected health information pursuant to
Sec. 164.516, the Secretary may determine whether the covered entity
has followed procedures that comply with Sec. 164.516, but will not
determine whether the information involved is accurate, complete, or
whether errors or omissions might have an adverse effect on the
individual.
(1) Requirements for filing complaints. Complaints under this
section must meet the following requirements:
(i) A complaint must be filed in writing, either on paper or
electronically.
(ii) A complaint should name the entity that is the subject of the
complaint and describe in detail the acts or omissions believed to be
in violation of the requirements of this subpart.
(iii) The Secretary may prescribe additional requirements for the
filing of complaints, as well as the place and manner of filing, by
notice in the Federal Register.
(2) Investigation. The Secretary may investigate complaints filed
under this section. Such investigation may include a review of the
pertinent policies, practices, and procedures of the covered entity and
of the circumstances regarding any alleged acts or omissions concerning
compliance.
(c) Compliance reviews. The Secretary may conduct compliance
reviews to determine whether covered entities are complying with this
subpart.
(d) Responsibilities of covered entities.--(1) Provide records and
compliance reports. A covered entity must keep such records and submit
such compliance reports, in such time and manner and containing such
information, as the Secretary may determine to be necessary to enable
the Secretary to ascertain whether the covered entity has complied or
is complying with the requirements of this subpart.
(2) Cooperate with periodic compliance reviews. The covered entity
shall cooperate with the Secretary if the Secretary undertakes a review
of the policies, procedures, and practices of a covered entity to
determine whether it is complying with this subpart.
(3) Permit access to information. A covered entity must permit
access by the Secretary during normal business hours to its books,
records, accounts, and other sources of information, including
protected health information, and its facilities, that are pertinent to
ascertaining compliance with this subpart. Where any information
required of a covered entity under this section is in the exclusive
possession of any other agency, institution, or person and the other
agency, institution, or person fails or refuses to furnish the
information, the covered entity must so certify and set forth what
efforts it has made to obtain the information. Protected health
information obtained in connection with a compliance review or
investigation under this subpart will not be disclosed by the
Secretary, except where necessary to enable the Secretary to ascertain
compliance with this subpart, in formal enforcement proceedings, or
where otherwise required by law.
(4) Refrain from intimidating or retaliatory acts. A covered entity
may not intimidate, threaten, coerce, discriminate against, or take
other retaliatory action against any individual for the filing of a
complaint under this section, for testifying, assisting, participating
in any manner in an investigation, compliance review, proceeding or
hearing under this Act, or opposing any act or practice made unlawful
by this subpart.
(e) Secretarial action regarding complaints and compliance
reviews.--(1) Resolution where noncompliance is indicated. (i) If an
investigation pursuant to paragraph (b)(2) of this section or a
compliance review pursuant to paragraph (c) of this section indicates a
failure to comply, the Secretary will so inform the covered entity and,
where the matter arose from a complaint, the individual, and resolve
the matter by informal means whenever possible.
(ii) If the Secretary determines that the matter cannot be resolved
by informal means, the Secretary may issue written findings documenting
the non-compliance to the covered entity and, where the matter arose
from a complaint, to the complainant. The Secretary may use such
findings as a basis for initiating action under section 1176 of the Act
or initiating a criminal referral under section 1177.
(2) Resolution where no violation is found. If an investigation or
compliance review does not warrant action pursuant
[[Page 60064]]
to paragraph (e)(1) of this section, the Secretary will so inform the
covered entity and, where the matter arose from a complaint, the
individual in writing.
Sec. 164.524 Effective date.
A covered entity must be in compliance with this subpart not later
than 24 months following the effective date of this rule, except that a
covered entity that is a small health plan must be in compliance with
this subpart not later than 36 months following the effective date of
the rule.
[[Page 60065]]
Appendix to Subpart E of Part 164--Model Authorization Form
[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP03NO99.000
[FR Doc. 99-28440 Filed 10-28-99; 4:45 pm]
BILLING CODE 4150-04-C