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Indicators of Welfare Dependence: Annual Report to Congress, 1998

Publication Date

Annual Report to Congress

October 1998

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

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Executive Summary

The Welfare Indicators Act of 1994 requires the Department of Health and Human Services to prepare annual reports to Congress on indicators and predictors of welfare dependence.  This Annual Report on Welfare Indicators, October 1998 is the second of these annual reports.

Welfare dependence, like poverty, is a continuum, with variations in degree and in duration.  Families may be more or less dependent if larger or smaller shares of their total resources are derived from welfare programs.  The amount of time over which a family depends on welfare might also be considered in assessing their degree of dependency.  Although recognizing the difficulties inherent in defining and measuring dependence, the bipartisan Advisory Board on Welfare Indicators proposed the following definition:

A family is dependent on welfare if more than 50 percent of its total income in a one-year period comes from AFDC/TANF, Food Stamps and/or SSI, and this welfare income is not associated with work activities.  Welfare dependence is the proportion of all families who are dependent on welfare.

The proposed definition, unfortunately, cannot be measured precisely at this time with currently available data.  Most importantly, current data do not distinguish between cash benefits where work is required and cash benefits that are paid without work.  Thus it was not possible to construct one single indicator of dependence.  Instead this report includes a number of indicators addressing welfare recipiency, dependence, and labor force attachment.  Selected findings discussed in more detail include the following:

  • In 1994, the most recent year for which SIPP data are available, 5.6 percent of the total population were dependent in the sense of receiving more than half of total income from AFDC, Food Stamps, and SSI (see Indicator 1).  This is approximately the same rate as the previous two years.  This dependency rate would be lower if adjusted to exclude welfare assistance associated with working.
  • Long-term dependency is relatively rare.  Only 4 percent of those who were recipients in 1982, or less than 1 percent of the total population, received more than 50 percent of their income from AFDC and Food Stamps in 9 or 10 years over the next decade.  Half of the 1982 recipients never received more than 50 percent of their income from AFDC and Food Stamps over the 1982-1991 time period (see Indicator 1, Figure IND 1b).
  • In 1994, 46 percent of AFDC recipients, 38 percent of SSI recipients and 57 percent of Food Stamp recipients were in families with at least one person in the labor force (see Indicator 4).
  • Individuals who receive AFDC or Food Stamps as children are more likely to receive benefits as adults (see Indicator 12).

Since the causes of welfare receipt and dependence are not clearly known, the report also includes a larger set of risk factors associated with welfare receipt.  Indicators of deprivation are included as a supplement to the dependence indicators, ensuring that dependence measures are not assessed in isolation.  The risk factors are loosely organized into three categories:  economic security measures, measures related to employment and barriers to employment, and measures of teen behavior, including nonmarital childbearing.  Additional data on welfare programs, poverty, and non-marital births are included in three appendices.

Chapter I. Introduction

The Welfare Indicators Act of 1994 (Pub. L. 103-432) directed the Secretary of Health and Human Services to develop indicators of the extent to which American families depend upon income from welfare programs and to publish annual reports on welfare dependency. These reports are to address questions concerning the extent to which American families depend on income from welfare programs such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), the Supplemental Security Income Program (SSI) and the Food Stamp Program (FSP). (Data shown for 1997 and later years will include the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program in place of AFDC.) Specific issues that HHS is directed to address are the rate of welfare dependency, the degree and duration of welfare recipiency and dependence, and predictors of welfare dependence.

An Advisory Board on Welfare Indicators was established under the Act to assist the Secretary in defining welfare dependence and in choosing appropriate data for inclusion in the first annual report. The Board consisted of a bipartisan group of experts appointed by the Senate, the House of Representatives and the President. Before its termination in October 1997, the Board developed a statistical definition of welfare dependence and oversaw the production of the first of these Annual Reports. This second annual report gives updated data on the measures of welfare recipiency, dependency, and predictors of welfare dependence developed for last year's report.

Organization of Report

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the specific summary measures of welfare dependence proposed by the Advisory Board. It also discusses summary measures of poverty, following the Board’s recommendation that dependence measures not be assessed in isolation from measures of deprivation. Analysis of both measures is important because changes in dependence measures could result either from increases in work activity and other factors that would raise family incomes, or from sanctions in welfare programs that would reduce welfare program participation but might not improve the material circumstances of these families. The introduction concludes with a brief discussion of data sources used for the report.

Chapter II of the report, Indicators of Dependence, presents a broader group of indicators of welfare recipiency and dependence. These indicators include measures of the extent of recipiency for each of the three programs considered separately, as well as information on income from all three programs in combination. Interactions of AFDC, SSI and FSP benefits with periods of employment and with benefits from other programs are also shown. The second chapter also includes data on movements onto and off of welfare programs, and on the extent to which welfare recipiency in adolescence is correlated with later adult recipiency.

Chapter III, Predictors and Risk Factors Associated with Welfare Receipt, focuses on predictors of welfare dependence -- risk factors believed to be associated with welfare receipt in some way. These predictors are shown in three different groups

  1. Economic security – including measures of poverty, receipt of child support, health care coverage, and so forth -- is important in predicting dependence in the sense that families with fewer economic resources are more likely to rely on welfare programs for their support.
  2. Measures of work status of adult family members also are important, because families must generally receive an adequate income from employment in order to avoid dependence without severe deprivation.
  3. Finally, teen behaviors are very important since a high proportion of long-term welfare recipients became parents as teens, often outside of marriage. Starting a family in these circumstances may lead to dependence because teens generally lack adequate skills, preparation and resources to support a child.

Additional data are presented in three appendices. Appendix A gives basic data on each of the three main welfare programs and their recipients over the past several years. These three programs are the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program, the Food Stamp Program, and the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) (Pub. L. 104-193), enacted in 1996, ended the AFDC program and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Program, which is run directly by the states. This year=s annual report includes data on the first year of the new program whenever those data have been available. The available data on TANF in 1997 are shown in Appendix A.

Appendix B provides additional detail on potential risk factors that could not be included in Chapter III because of space considerations. These risk factors are primarily measures of poverty and economic security. Finally, additional data on nonmarital childbearing are included in Appendix C.

Measuring Welfare Dependence

Welfare dependence, like poverty, is a continuum, with variations in degree and in duration. Families may be more or less dependent if larger or smaller shares of their total resources are derived from welfare programs. The amount of time over which a family depends on welfare might also be considered in assessing their degree of dependency. Nevertheless, a summary measure of dependence to be used as an indicator for policy purposes must have some fixed parameters that allow one to determine which families should be counted as dependent, just as the poverty line defines who is poor under the official standard. The definition of dependence developed by the Advisory Board for this purpose is as follows:

A family is dependent on welfare if more than 50 percent of its total income in a one-year period comes from AFDC/TANF, Food Stamps and/or SSI, and this welfare income is not associated with work activities. Welfare dependence is the proportion of all families who are dependent on welfare.

This measure is not without its limitations. The Advisory Board recognized that no single measure could fully capture all aspects of dependence and that the proposed measure should be examined in concert with other key indicators of dependence and deprivation. In addition, while the proposed definition would count unsubsidized and subsidized employment and work required to obtain benefits as work activities, currently available data do not permit distinguishing between welfare income associated with work activities and non-work-related welfare benefits. As a result, the data shown in this report overstate the incidence of dependence (as defined above) because welfare income associated with work required to obtain benefits is classified as welfare and not as income from work. This proposed definition capture also represents an essentially arbitrary choice of a percentage (50 percent) of income from welfare beyond which families will be considered dependent. However, it is relatively easy to measure and to track over time, and is likely to be associated with any very large changes in total dependence, however defined. For example, as the recent changes in welfare law move more recipients into employment or workrelated activities, dependence under this definition is expected to decline.

In 1994, the most recent year for which complete population data are available on monthly income and benefit recipiency, 18.0 percent of the population received means-tested assistance, and close to one-third of this group, or 5.6 percent of the total population, would be considered dependent under the above definition, as shown in Table SUM1. Recipiency and dependency rates are higher in both 1993 and 1994 than they were in 1987 and 1990. Recipiency rates, for example, rose from rates of about 14 to 15 percent in 1987 and 1990, to rates of 17 to 18 percent in 1993 and 1994. This rise in consistent with administrative data showing higher than average AFDC and Food Stamp caseloads in 1993 and 1994. What is not apparent from administrative records, but is shown in these national survey data, is that dependency rates also were higher in 1993 and 1994, in the range of 5 to 6 percent, as opposed to the rates of between 4 and 5 percent, seen in 1987 and 1990.

Table SUM 1. Percentage of the Total Population with More than 50 Percent of Income from Means-Tested Assistance Programs

  1987 1990 1993 1994
  Any Receipt of Assistance More than 50% of Income Any Receipt of Assistance More than 50% of Income Any Receipt of Assistance More than 50% of Income Any Receipt of Assistance More than 50% of Income

Note: Means-tested assistance includes AFDC, SSI and Food Stamps. While only affecting a small number of cases, General Assistance income is included within AFDC income. The 1993 data have been revised based on the 1993 SIPP panel; the 1993 data in earlier reports were drawn from an earlier SIPP panel.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1987, 1990, and 1993 panels.

All Persons 14.9 4.7 14.1 4.2 17.0 5.9 18 5.6
Racial Categories                
    Non-Hispanic White 9.3 2.2 8.9 2.1 10.9 2.8 11.1 2.6
    Non-Hispanic Black 40.9 15.7 36.6 14.6 41.8 16.7 43.2 16.8
    Hispanic 28.3 10.9 29.5 8.3 33.9 14.2 37.1 12.9
Age Categories                
    Children Age 0 - 5 24.5 10.0 24.0 10.3 29.0 13.3 32.4 12.5
    Children Age 6 - 10 23.2 10.1 20.2 8.5 24.0 12.3 28.6 12.0
    Children Age 11 - 15 19.8 8.0 18.8 6.4 22.6 10.5 24.9 9.3
    Women Age 16 - 64 14.4 4.6 14.1 4.6 17.3 5.8 17.5 5.5
    Men Age 16 - 64 10.1 2.0 9.5 1.5 12.0 2.7 12.3 2.5
    Adults Age 65 & over 13.6 2.6 12.1 1.9 12.2 2.0 12.3 2.2

In Table SUM 2, the dependence indicator is calculated in more detail for specific combinations of programs. The first column shows dependency when counting income from all three programs as welfare (as was done in Table SUM 1), while the second and third columns show dependency when counting AFDC and Food Stamp benefits only, or counting SSI only. In general, about three-fourths of families who are dependent based on income from all three programs also are dependent under a definition that considers AFDC and Food Stamps alone. As might be expected, the one exception involves adults aged 65 and over. Whereas two percent of elderly recipients are dependent under the definition that includes AFDC, Food Stamps and SSI, less than one-half percent are dependent when SSI is excluded. Table SUM 2 also shows that non-whites and the very young are more likely to be dependent than other racial and age categories, and they are primarily dependent on AFDC and Food Stamps. Even in these populations, however, the vast majority of families do not meet the criteria for dependence.

Table SUM 2. Percentage of the Total Population with More than 50 Percent of Income from Various Means-Tested Assistance Programs, 1994

  AFDC, SSI and Food Stamps AFDC and Food Stamps SSI only
All Persons 5.6 4.1 0.9
Racial Categories      
    Non-Hispanic White 2.6 1.8 0.5
    Non-Hispanic Black 16.8 11.9 2.9
    Hispanic 12.9 10.3 0.9
Age Categories      
    Children Age 0 - 5 12.5 10.6 0.5
    Children Age 6 - 10 12.0 9.3 0.9
    Children Age 11 - 15 9.3 6.6 0.7
    Women Age 16 - 64 5.5 3.8 1.1
    Men Age 16 - 64 2.5 1.2 0.8
    Adults Age 65 and over 2.2 0.3 1.4

A third measure of dependence, shown in Table SUM 3, indicates the proportion of the welfare population that meets the dependence definition over an extended period of time, as well as the proportion receiving any welfare benefits over time. During each of the two time periods presented, about half of all recipients did not receive more than 50 percent of their income from AFDC and Food Stamp benefits in any of the ten years examined. About one-quarter (23 percent in the 1982-1991 time period) were dependent for one to two years, with lower proportions dependent for longer periods of time. Only 4 percent of those who were received welfare in 1982, for example, were dependent for 9 to 10 years. This is a smaller percentage than the proportion of recipients that received welfare of any amount for 9 to 10 years (11 percent). There is a small tendency for the proportion of spells of welfare dependence that are longer to grow over this period, but the change is not large enough to be statistically significant. Child recipients have longer spells of welfare receipt and welfare dependence than do recipients in general, as shown in the bottom half of the table.

Table SUM 3. AFDC Receipt and Percentage of Recipients with More than 50 Percent of Income from AFDC and Food Stamps by Number of Years

  All Recipients 1972 – 1981 All Recipients 1982 – 1991
Years Any AFDCReceipt AFDC & Food Stamps >50% of Income Any AFDC Receipt AFDC & Food Stamps >50% of Income
0 Years -- 55 -- 50
1 - 2 Years 49 22 47 23
3 - 5 Years 28 14 28 15
6 - 8 Years 13 5 15 9
9 - 10 Years 11 4 11 4
  100% 100% 100% 100%
  Children 0 - 5 in 1972: 1972 - 1981 Children 0 - 5 in 1982: 1982 - 1991
Years Any AFDC Receipt AFDC & Food Stamps >50% of Income Any AFDC Receipt AFDC & Food Stamps >50% of Income

Note: Recipients include all individuals receiving at least $1 in AFDC or Food Stamp benefits in the first year of the ten-year time period (1972 or 1982). “AFDC Receipt” is defined as whether the person received AFDC at any time during the year. “AFDC & Food Stamps, >50% of Income” is defined as whether the person’s AFDC and Food Stamps benefit was more than 50% of their yearly income. “0 Years” means that while the person received means-tested assistance, their benefits were 50% of their income for zero years during the time period. For example, a person listed as receiving AFDC for 6 - 8 years (“Any AFDC Receipt”) may never have received benefits greater than 50% of their income (0 years, AFDC and Food Stamps >50% of Income).

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1972 - 1991.

0 Years -- 39 -- 34
1 - 2 Years 37 25 34 28
3 - 5 Years 29 21 29 16
6 - 8 Years 15 6 17 13
9 - 10 Years 19 9 20 8
  100% 100% 100% 100%

Figure SUM 4. Trends in Poverty with and without Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons, 1979-1996

Percent of Total Population in Poverty

 

Figure SUM 4. Trends in Poverty with and without Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons, 1979-1996

Source: Table SUM 4.


Measuring Deprivation

Changes in dependence may or may not be associated with changes in the level of deprivation, depending on the alternative sources of support found by families who might otherwise be dependent on welfare. To assess the social impacts of any change in dependence, changes in the level of poverty or deprivation also must be considered. One way of measuring deprivation is to look at changes in the level of need over time. Elsewhere in this document, for example, measures of food insecurity and of the poverty gap – the amount of income that would be needed to bring all of those below poverty to the poverty line – are presented. (See Table ECON 9 in Chapter III for measures of food insecurity and Tables B-1 and B-2 in Appendix B for poverty gap measures.)

The deprivation measure presented in this chapter, however, focuses directly on changes in the anti-poverty effectiveness of welfare and related programs. Table SUM 4 (and its associated figure) shows how much welfare programs have reduced poverty rates for all persons since 1979.

Similar data are shown for persons in families with related children under age 18 in Figure SUM 5 and Table SUM 5.

Table SUM 4. Percentage of Persons in Poverty before and after the Inclusion of Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons, Selected Years 1979 – 1996

  1979 1981 1983 1986 1989 1991 1993 1995 1996

Note: The first measure of poverty, labeled cash income plus all social insurance, includes social security but not means-tested cash transfers. Adding means-tested cash transfers yields the official census definition of poverty, the second line in the table. Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is added. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit, which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment. The fungible value of Medicare and Medicaid is not included.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.

Cash Income plus All Social Insurance 12.8 14.9 16.0 14.5 13.7 15.2 16.3 14.9 14.8
    Plus Means-Tested Cash Assistance 11.6 13.9 15.2 13.6 12.8 14.2 15.1 13.8 13.7
    Plus Food and Housing Benefits 9.7 12.2 13.7 12.2 11.2 12.4 13.4 12.0 12.1
    Plus EITC and Federal Taxes 10.0 13.2 14.7 13.1 11.7 12.6 13.3 11.5 11.5
Reduction in Poverty Rate 2.8 1.7 1.3 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.3

As can be seen by the figures and tables, many more families would be poor if they did not receive welfare benefits. Counting only cash income and social insurance (excluding welfare), the poverty rate for all individuals would be 14.8 percent in 1996, as shown in the top line in Figure SUM 4 and Table SUM 4. The official poverty rate, which adds means-tested cash assistance, was about one percentage point lower, as shown in the second line in the table and figure. The rate is further reduced when counting food and housing benefits (see third line in figure and table) and when counting taxes, including refunds through the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) (see fourth line). This final poverty rate – taking into account all sources of support – is a more complete measure of deprivation than is the official poverty rate or other measures that exclude some types of support. Breaking it down in this fashion allows the relative contribution of different sources – including cash welfare and relatively fungible in-kind welfare benefits – to the alleviation of poverty to be observed.

Poverty rates of all types began to increase in 1990 as the economy went into a recession, reaching a peak in 1993. As economic conditions have started to improve rates have come down, both before and after means-tested assistance. The gap between poverty rates before and after public assistance has increased slightly over time, particularly in the last few years as the size of the EITC has grown. The EITC is a work-related benefit, however, and is not included as assistance in estimating dependence. The contribution of all sources of means-tested support (including cash assistance, food and housing benefits, and the EITC and taxes) to the reduction in poverty has remained roughly constant, except that during the recession of the early 1980s these programs did somewhat less to reduce total poverty. Current poverty-reduction rates for assistance programs are about the same as in 1979, although a bit more of the reduction comes in the form of non-cash benefits. In general, the net effect of means-tested support has been to reduce poverty rates by about three percentage points for all individuals (as shown in Table SUM 4) and by about five percentage points for individuals in families with related children under six (as shown in Table SUM 5).

Figure SUM 5. Trends in Poverty before and after Including Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons in Families with Related Children Under 18 Years of Age, 1979 – 1996

Percent of Population in Poverty

Figure SUM 5. Trends in Poverty before and after Including Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons in Families with Related Children Under 18 Years of Age, 1979 – 1996

Source: Table SUM 5.

 


Table SUM 5. Percentage of Persons in Poverty before and after Including Means-Tested Benefits: All Persons in Families with Related Children under 18 Years of Age, 1979-1996

  1979 1981 1983 1986 1989 1991 1993 1995 1996

Note: The first measure of poverty, labeled cash income plus all social insurance, includes social security but not means-tested cash transfers. Adding means-tested cash transfers yields the official census definition of poverty, the second line in the table. Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is added. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit, which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment. The fungible value of Medicare and Medicaid is not included.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.

Cash Income plus All Social Insurance 14.3 17.4 19.1 17.4 16.8 18.8 20.0 18.1 17.8
    Plus Means-Tested Cash Assistance 12.9 16.3 18.4 16.5 15.8 17.7 18.7 16.8 16.6
    Plus Food and Housing Benefits 10.2 13.9 16.5 14.6 13.6 15.3 16.4 14.3 14.4
    Plus EITC and Federal Taxes 10.5 15.2 17.7 15.8 14.1 15.3 15.9 13.0 12.9
Reduction in Poverty Rate 3.8 2.2 1.4 1.6 3.5 3.5 4.1 5.1 4.9

The relatively small changes in the level of overall deprivation since the late 1980s are consistent with the small changes in the dependence rate seen earlier. As larger changes in dependence occur under PRWORA, it will be both necessary and interesting to track changes in these deprivation rates as well. If this legislation succeeds in its aims, dependence should fall noticeably while deprivation measures remain largely unchanged.

Data Sources

For purposes of this report, the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) has been used the most extensively and is considered the most useful national survey. Its strengths are its longitudinal design, system of monthly accounting, and detail concerning employment, income and participation in federal income-support and related programs. These features make the SIPP particularly effective for capturing the complexities of program dynamics and many of the indicators and predictors, or risk factors, associated with welfare receipt.

The SIPP does not, however, follow families for more than three years. Therefore, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) also are used in this report. Both the PSID and NLSY collect annual income data, including transfer income, over a long time-period, providing vital data for indicators of long-term and intergenerational welfare receipt, dependence, and deprivation.

Some indicators in this report are based upon the annual Current Population Survey (CPS), which is available on a more timely basis than the SIPP. The CPS measures income and poverty over a single annual accounting period, and provides important information regarding childhood poverty.

Finally, the report also draws upon administrative data for the AFDC, Food Stamp and SSI programs.

Chapter II . Indicators of Dependence

Following the format of last year’s first annual report to Congress, this second chapter presents summary data related to twelve indicators of dependence. These indicators differ from other welfare statistics because of their emphasis on welfare dependence, rather than simple welfare receipt. As discussed in Chapter I, the Advisory Board on Welfare Indicators suggested consideration of the following proposed definition of dependence:

A family is dependent on welfare if more than 50 percent of its total income in a one-year period comes from AFDC/TANF, Food Stamps and/or SSI, and this welfare income is not associated with work activities. Welfare dependence is the proportion of all families who are dependent on welfare.

The indicators in Chapter II were selected to provide information about dependence, following, to the extent feasible, the definition of dependence proposed by the Advisory Board. Existing data from administrative records and national surveys, however, do not generally distinguish welfare benefits received in conjunction with work from benefits received without work. Thus it was not possible to construct one single indicator of dependence, that is, one indicator that measures both percentage of income from means-tested assistance and presence of work activities. Instead, this chapter includes some indicators that focus on the percentage of recipients’ income from meanstested assistance, while other indicators focus on presence of work activities at the same time as welfare receipt. Still other indicators present summary data and characteristics on all recipients, not limited to those with more than 50 percent of total income from welfare programs or those without work activities.

Overall, the twelve indicators of dependency were selected to reflect both the range and depth of dependence. The summary data provide information about:

  • the degree to which recipients are dependent on assistance (Indicator 1),
  • how long recipients receive welfare or remain dependent (Indicators 3, 5, 6),
  • welfare and dependence transitions (Indicators 2 and 11),
  • participation in the labor force while receiving assistance (Indicators 4),
  • multiple program receipt (Indicator 7),
  • events associated with entries and exits from welfare (Indicator 8),
  • recipiency and participation rates over time (Indicators 9 and 10), and
  • intergenerational dependence (Indicator 12).

Indicators in this chapter focus on recipients of three major means-tested cash and nutritional assistance programs: Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), Supplemental Security Income (SSI) for elderly and disabled recipients, and the Food Stamp Program. Only limited administrative data are available to report on recipients of the new Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. These are shown in Indicator 9a, which reports AFDC/TANF recipiency rates through 1997. For some indicators, data are presented for the most recent year only; for other indicators, trend data are provided.

Indicator 1. Degree of Dependence

This indicator captures the degree of dependence by examining total family income and the percentage of total family income from means-tested assistance programs.

Figure IND 1a. Percentage of Total Income from Means-Tested Assistance Programs for the Total Population, 1994

Figure IND 1a. Percentage of Total Income from Means-Tested Assistance Programs for the Total Population, 1994

Source: Table IND 1a.


  • Less than 6 percent of the total population in 1994 received more than half of their total income from AFDC, Food Stamps and SSI.
  • Eighty-two percent of the total population received no means-tested assistance in 1994. Table IND 1a reveals a similar pattern for 1993 (82 percent), 1992 (83 percent), 1990 (86 percent) and 1987 (85 percent).
  • For all persons who received some assistance, most received 25 percent or less of their total family income from AFDC, Food Stamps and SSI (10 percent of the total population). Table IND 1a shows similar percentages for other years (10 percent in 1993, 9 percent in 1992, 8 percent in 1990, and 8 percent in 1987).
  • As shown in Table IND 1a, a larger percentage of non-Hispanic blacks received more than 50 percent of their income from means-tested assistance programs than Hispanics or non-Hispanic whites in all five years presented. However, even in these groups more than 80 percent were not dependent on welfare under the definition used here.

Table IND 1a. Percentage of Total Income from Means-Tested Assistance Programs for the Total Population, Selected Years

  0% > 0% and <= 25% > 25% and <= 50% Total > 50% > 50% and <= 75% Total > 75%

Note: Means-tested assistance includes AFDC, SSI and Food Stamps. While only affecting a small number of cases, general assistance income is included within AFDC income. Total > 50% includes all persons with more than 50 percent of their income from these means-tested programs. The 1993 data have been revised based on the 1993 SIPP panel; the 1993 data in earlier reports were drawn from an earlier SIPP panel.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1987, 1990, 1992 and 1993 panels.

1994
All Persons 82 9.9 2.5 5.6 1.6 4
Non-Hispanic White 88.9 7.1 1.4 2.6 0.9 1.7
Non-Hispanic Black 56.8 20 6.3 16.8 5.1 11.7
Hispanic 62.9 17.9 6.3 12.9 3.2 9.7
Children Age 0 - 5 67.6 14.6 5.3 12.5 2.8 9.7
Children Age 6 - 10 71.4 12.6 4 12 3 9
Children Age 11 - 15 75.1 11.8 3.9 9.3 2.6 6.7
Women Age 16 - 64 82.5 9.7 2.3 5.5 1.7 3.8
Men Age 16 – 64 87.7 8.4 1.4 2.5 0.9 1.6
Adults Age 65 and over 87.7 8.2 2 2.2 1 1.1
1993
All Persons 82.2 9.5 2.5 5.9 1.6 4.3
Non-Hispanic White 88.8 7 1.4 2.8 0.8 2
Non-Hispanic Black 58.6 17.7 6.9 16.7 5 11.8
Hispanic 62.9 17.2 5.7 14.2 3.2 11
Children Age 0 - 5 68.5 13.9 4.3 13.3 2.9 10.4
Children Age 6 - 10 72.8 11.1 3.9 12.3 2.7 9.7
Children Age 11 - 15 75.9 10.2 3.4 10.5 2.8 7.6
Women Age 16 - 64 82.2 9.5 2.5 5.8 1.7 4.1
Men Age 16 – 64 87.7 8.2 1.4 2.7 0.8 1.9
Adults Age 65 and over 88.1 7.7 2.3 2 0.8 1.2
1992
All Persons 83.1 9.3 2.7 4.9 1.4 3.5
Non-Hispanic White 89 6.8 1.8 2.4 0.8 1.6
Non-Hispanic Black 59 18.3 6.9 15.9 4.1 11.7
Hispanic 66.7 17.6 5.1 10.5 2.5 8
Children Age 0 - 5 71.1 12.1 4.6 12.2 3 9.3
Children Age 6 - 10 76.2 10.7 3.6 9.5 2.6 6.9
Children Age 11 - 15 76.8 11.9 3.8 7.5 2.1 5.4
Women Age 16 - 64 83 9.2 2.8 5 1.3 3.7
Men Age 16 – 64 88.2 8.2 1.6 1.9 0.7 1.3
Adults Age 65 and over 87.4 8 2.5 2 1 1.1
1990
All Persons 85.9 7.9 2 4.2 1.2 3
Non-Hispanic White 91.1 5.7 1.1 2.1 0.6 1.5
Non-Hispanic Black 63.4 16 6 14.6 5.2 9.3
Hispanic 70.5 16.8 4.4 8.3 2.1 6.2
Children Age 0 - 5 76 11 2.8 10.3 2.4 7.9
Children Age 6 - 10 79.8 9.2 2.6 8.5 2.4 6
Children Age 11 - 15 81.2 9.6 2.8 6.4 1.8 4.5
Women Age 16 - 64 85.9 7.7 1.8 4.6 1.3 3.2
Men Age 16 – 64 90.5 6.7 1.3 1.5 0.5 1
Adults Age 65 and over 87.9 7.4 2.8 1.9 1 0.9
1987
All Persons 85.1 8.2 2.1 4.7 1.3 3.3
Non-Hispanic White 90.7 5.8 1.3 2.2 0.9 1.3
Non-Hispanic Black 59.1 18.7 6.5 15.7 3.9 11.8
Hispanic 71.7 13.6 3.8 10.9 2.2 8.7
Children Age 0 - 5 75.5 10.9 3.7 10 2.7 7.3
Children Age 6 - 10 76.8 10.5 2.6 10.1 2.8 7.3
Children Age 11 - 15 80.2 9.2 2.6 8 1.6 6.4
Women Age 16 - 64 85.6 7.9 1.9 4.6 1.1 3.5
Men Age 16 – 64 89.9 6.8 1.4 2 0.8 1.2
Adults Age 65 and over 86.4 8.6 2.5 2.6 1.4 1.2

Figure IND 1b. Percentage of Recipients with More than 50 Percent of Income from AFDC and Food Stamps by Number of Years

Figure IND 1b. Percentage of Recipients with More than 50 Percent of Income from AFDC and Food Stamps by Number of Years

Source: Table IND 1b.


  • For half of all recipients, AFDC and Food Stamps made up 50 percent or less of their total income in all years between 1982 and 1991. As shown in Table IND 1b, this was also true for 55 percent of all recipients between 1972 and 1981.
  • The percentage of recipients who received more than 50 percent of their total income from AFDC and Food Stamps for 6 to10 years during the 1982 to 1991 period is considerably smaller than the corresponding percentage who were dependent for 1 to 5 years (13 percent compared to 38 percent).
  • As shown in Table IND 1b, among child recipients, the percentage of black children who were not dependent—that is, were in families who did not receive more than 50 percent of their income from AFDC and Food Stamps in any year increased across the two time periods (from 24 percent to 31 percent). In comparison, the percentage of non-black recipient children who were not dependent decreased substantially across the two time periods (from 50 percent to 37 percent).

Table IND 1b. Percentage of Recipients with More than 50 Percent of Income from AFDC and Food Stamps by Number of Years

  All Recipients: 1982 - 1991
Cumulative Years All Recipients Black Non-Black
  100% 100% 100%
0 Years 50 43 54
1 - 2 Years 23 21 25
3 - 5 Years 15 17 14
6 - 8 Years 9 12 6
9 - 10 Years 4 7 2
  Children 0 - 5 in 1982: 1982 - 1991
Cumulative Years All Child Recipients Black Non-Black
  100% 100% 100%
0 Years 34 31 37
1 - 2 Years 28 19 35
3 - 5 Years 16 18 15
6 - 8 Years 13 19 9
9 - 10 Years 8 14 4
  All Recipients: 1972 - 1981
Cumulative Years All Recipients Black Non-Black
  100% 100% 100%
0 Years 55 44 62
1 - 2 Years 22 22 22
3 - 5 Years 14 19 11
6 - 8 Years 5 9 3
9 - 10 Years 4 7 2
  Children 0 - 5 in 1972: 1972 - 1981
Cumulative Years All Child Recipients Black Non-Black
  100% 100% 100%

Note: Recipients are defined as individuals receiving at least $1 of AFDC or Food Stamps in the first year (1982 or 1972). Child recipients are defined by age in the first year.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1972 - 1991.

0 Years 39 24 50
1 - 2 Years 25 27 23
3 - 5 Years 21 27 17
6 - 8 Years 6 9 4
9 - 10 Years 9 12 6

Figure IND 1c. Percentage of Total Income from Various Sources by Poverty Status, 1994

Figure IND 1c. Percentage of Total Income from Various Sources by Poverty Status, 1994

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.


  • Not surprisingly, poorer families received a larger percentage of their income from transfer programs and Food Stamps while wealthier families received a larger percentage of their income from earnings.
  • Poor individuals (those in families with incomes below100 percent of poverty) received 42 percent of their total family income from means-tested assistance programs (transfer income and Food Stamps). In contrast, the percentage of total family income from means-tested assistance programs is much lower for those who are at least 200 percent above the poverty line (less than one percent).
  • Those living in deep poverty (total family income less than 50 percent of the poverty line) relied heavily on transfer income from AFDC and SSI (38 percent of total family income) as well as Food Stamps (35 percent of total family income).
  • The composition of income for all poor persons (less than 100 percent of poverty) is significantly different than the composition for those living in deep poverty (less than 50 percent of poverty). For example, the percentage of income from earnings for all poor individuals is more than twice the percent for those in deep poverty (40 percent compared to 16 percent). Those in deep poverty also rely much more heavily on income from transfer programs and Food Stamps compared to the full poverty population.

Table IND 1c. Percentage of Total Income from Various Sources by Poverty Status, 1994

  <50% of poverty <100% of poverty <150% of poverty <200% of poverty 200%+ of poverty

Note: Transfer income is defined as AFDC and SSI. While only affecting a small number of cases, general assistance income is included in AFDC income. Other income is non-means-tested, nonearnings income such as child support, alimony, pensions, Social Security benefits, interest and dividends. Poverty status categories are not mutually exclusive.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

All Persons
Means-Tested Transfer Income 38.2 25.7 15.1 9 0.2
Food Stamps 34.6 16 8.8 5 0
Earnings 15.9 40.3 54.7 64.6 85.1
Other Income 11.3 18 21.5 21.4 14.6
Average Income $ 6,946 $ 10,708 $ 13,377 $ 16,740 $ 57,249
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 28 20 10.5 5.5 0.2
Food Stamps 30.3 13.2 6.4 3.1 0
Earnings 24.2 42.9 55 64.8 84.3
Other Income 17.8 21.1 24.6 23.7 15.1
Average Income $ 5,296 $ 9,589 $ 12,609 $ 16,448 $ 58,188
Non-Hispanic Black          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 44.1 31.5 21.8 15.4 0.6
Food Stamps 40.5 20.2 12.7 8.8 0.2
Earnings 8.3 31 47.3 58.8 88.4
Other Income 6.5 17.5 18.1 16.8 10.4
Average Income $ 7,571 $ 10,773 $ 13,470 $ 16,427 $ 46,819
Hispanic          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 41 25.4 15.7 11.2 0.5
Food Stamps 34 16.6 9.8 6.5 0.1
Earnings 15.3 46.6 62 70 89.9
Other Income 6.2 14.7 16.2 15.6 10.4
Average Income $ 8,709 $ 12,666 $ 15,114 $ 17,918 $ 48,917
Age Categories
Children Age 0 - 5          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 44.4 28.6 17.9 11.8 0.2
Food Stamps 37.1 19.6 12.1 7.7 0.1
Earnings 11.2 40.8 58.8 70 93.4
Other Income 0 0 0 0 0
Average Income $ 7,825 $ 11,813 $ 14,763 $ 18,236 $ 59,336
Children Age 6 - 10          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 39.9 28.2 18 11.4 0.2
Food Stamps 36.9 18.3 11.1 6.8 0
Earnings 14.7 40.9 58.1 70 93
Other Income 6.5 10.1 10.5 9.8 5.9
Average Income $ 8,675 $ 12,802 $ 15,688 $ 19,408 $ 63,068
Children Age 11 - 15          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 37.2 27.7 16.7 9.7 0.2
Food Stamps 35.8 17.9 10.5 6 0
Earnings 16.9 39.9 56.7 68.9 92.4
Other Income 8.5 12.6 12.8 11.5 6.5
Average Income $ 8,628 $ 12,822 $ 15,718 $ 19,780 $ 65,892
Women Age 16 - 64          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 36.9 26.6 15.5 9.2 0.2
Food Stamps 33.6 15.5 8.5 4.8 0
Earnings 17.2 40.6 57.4 68.4 87.8
Other Income 18.6 20.2 21.8 19.7 10.9
Average Income $ 6,126 $ 9,808 $ 12,636 $ 16,045 $ 57,632
Men Age 16 - 64          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 23.5 18.7 10.7 6 0.2
Food Stamps 25.8 11.6 5.8 3 0
Earnings 27.1 50.3 63.1 72.7 89.1
Other Income 18.5 17.6 18.6 17.1 11.2
Average Income $ 4,837 $ 10,173 $ 13,488 $ 17,335 $ 58,751
Adults Age 65 and over          
Means-Tested Transfer Income 18.1 16.4 9.9 5.8 0.4
Food Stamps 16.2 4.1 1.9 1 0
Earnings 9.1 2.2 5.1 7.8 24.8
Other Income 25.4 26.4 26.4 25.1 17.3
Average Income $ 2,970 $ 6,400 $ 8,877 $ 11,199 $ 39,791

Indicator 2. Dependence Transitions

Whereas other indicators (Indicator 1a) illustrate the depth of dependence in a single year, this indicator reflects changes in the level of dependence over two years.

Figure IND 2. Dependency Status in 1994 of Persons who Received More Than 50 Percent of Income from Assistance in 1993

Figure IND 2. Dependency Status in 1994 of Persons who Received More Than 50 Percent of Income from Assistance in 1993

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.


  • Four-fifths of all recipients who received more than 50 percent of their total income from means-tested assistance programs in 1993 also received more than 50 percent of their total income from these same programs in 1994 (80 percent).
  • Of recipients who received more than 50 percent of their total income from AFDC, Food Stamps and SSI in 1993, a larger percentage of non-Hispanic whites became “less dependent” in 1994 (received 50 percent or less of their total income from means-tested assistance programs) compared to Hispanics and non-Hispanic blacks, although the ratios were similar across all categories.
  • While only a small percentage of all recipients who received more than 50 percent of their total income from means-tested assistance programs in 1993 received no aid in 1994, the corresponding percentage for Hispanics in 1994 (3 percent) is somewhat larger than the percentages for the other groups.
  • As shown in Table IND 2, a slightly larger percentage of women who received more than half of their total income from means-tested assistance programs in 1993 remained “dependent” in 1994 compared to the same percentage for men (79 percent compared to 76 percent).

Table IND. 2. Dependency Status in 1994 of Persons Who Received More Than 50 Percent of Income from Means-Tested Assistance in 1993

    Percentage of Persons Receiving
MORE THAN 50% TRANSFER INCOME IN 1993 Total (thousands) No Aid in 1994 Up to 50% Aid in 1994 More than 50% Aid in 1994

Note: Means-tested assistance is defined as AFDC, Food Stamps, and SSI. While only affecting a small number of cases, general assistance income is included within AFDC income.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

All persons 14810 1.6 18.6 79.8
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 5157 1.9 21.8 76.2
Non-Hispanic Black 4851 1.3 14.9 83.8
Hispanic origin 3623 2.7 17.5 79.8
Age Categories        
Children Age 0−5 3639 1.3 18.1 80.6
Children Age 6−10 2275 2.5 14.5 83.0
Children Age 11−15 1800 1.1 22.2 76.7
Men 16−64 1937 1.3 22.7 76.0
Women 16−64 4588 2.0 19.0 79.0
Adults 65 years and over 571 0.0 9.1 90.7

Indicator 3. Dependence Spell Duration

In contrast to the indicator on duration of spells of means-tested assistance (Indicator 5), this indicator of dependence spell duration combines information on spells of receipt of means-tested assistance and paid employment.

Figure IND 3. Duration of AFDC Spells of Individuals in Families Where No One Is in the Labor Force

Figure IND 3. Duration of AFDC Spells of Individuals in Families Where No One Is in the Labor Force

Source: Table IND 3.


  • Forty-three percent of AFDC spells for individuals in families with no one in the labor force ended within a year.
  • Over one-quarter (27 percent) of AFDC spells for individuals in families where no one participated in the labor force were less than four months long.
  • As shown in Table IND 3, a smaller percentage of AFDC spells to children in families with no labor force participants ended in less than four months compared to their adult counterparts (25 percent compared to 31 percent).

Table IND 3. Percentage of AFDC Spells for Individuals with No Family Member in the Labor Force by Length of Spell

  Percent of Spells
  Spells <4 months Spells <12 months Spells <20 months Spells 20+ months

Note: Spell length categories are not mutually exclusive. Spells separated by only 1 month are not considered separate spells. Due to the length of the observation period, actual spell lengths for spells that lasted more than 20 months cannot be observed. AFDC spells are defined as those spells starting during the 1993 SIPP panel. For certain racial categories, data are not available (NA) because of insufficient sample size.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

All persons 27.2 43.4 50.3 49.7
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 30.2 40.7 43.0 57.0
Non-Hispanic Black 17.4 45.6 NA NA
Hispanic 33.2 NA NA NA
Age        
Children 0-15 24.7 41.9 49.1 50.9
Adults Age 16-64 30.6 45.8 51.9 48.1

Indicator 4. Receipt of Means-tested Assistance and Labor Force Attachment

This indicator illustrates one aspect of the range of dependence by combining information on receipt of means-tested assistance and hours of employment.

Figure IND 4a. Percentage of Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

Figure IND 4a. Percentage of Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.


  • In 1994, 46 percent of individuals who received AFDC, 38 percent of individuals who received SSI, and 57 percent of individuals who received Food Stamps were in families with at least one person in the labor force.
  • A larger percentage of individuals who received Food Stamps, compared to AFDC and SSI, were in families with at least one family member who participated in the labor force full-time.
  • As shown in Table IND 4a, among AFDC recipients, a larger percentage of children under age 6 were in families with at least one full-time labor force participant compared to children age 6 to 15.
  • As further shown in Table IND 4a, similar percentages of non-Hispanic white and non-Hispanic black AFDC recipients were in families with at least one full-time labor force participant (22 percent for both groups).

Table IND 4a. Percentage of Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

    No One in LF At least 1 in LF No One FT At least 1 FT Labor Force Participant

Note: Full-time labor force participants are defined as those who usually work 35 or more hours per week. Data on receipt of SSI for young children is not available.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

AFDC All Recipients 54.5 25.3 20.2
  Non-Hispanic White 51.2 26.3 22.4
  Non-Hispanic Black 53.2 24.8 22.1
  Hispanic 62.5 20.7 16.8
  Children Age 0 to 5 57.1 21.6 21.4
  Children Age 6 to 10 59.3 23.8 16.9
  Children Age 11 to 15 57.8 26.5 15.7
  Women 16 to 64 52.5 25.7 21.8
  Men 16 to 64 32.0 40.9 27.1
  Adults 65 years and over 68.7 29.4 1.9
SSI All Recipients 62.1 11.8 26.1
  Non-Hispanic White 60.7 12.1 27.2
  Non-Hispanic Black 66.7 12.0 21.3
  Hispanic 61.5 11.3 27.1
  Children Age 0 to 5 NA NA NA
  Children Age 6 to 10 NA NA NA
  Children Age 11 to 15 58.9 0.0 41.1
  Women 16 to 64 56.7 14.9 28.4
  Men 16 to 64 56.9 13.2 29.9
  Adults 65 years and over 73.1 6.8 20.1
FOOD STAMPS All Recipients 43.5 24.7 31.8
  Non-Hispanic White 40.6 25.6 33.8
  Non-Hispanic Black 47.3 23.8 28.9
  Hispanic 44.2 22.3 33.6
  Children Age 0 to 5 43.0 22.1 34.9
  Children Age 6 to 10 44.6 24.2 31.2
  Children Age 11 to 15 42.3 27.2 30.5
  Women 16 to 64 31.0 30.4 38.6
  Men 16 to 64 43.4 26.0 30.6
  Adults Age 65 and over 81.9 6.6 11.5

Figure IND 4b. Percentage of AFDC Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, Selected Years

Figure IND 4b. Percentage of AFDC Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, Selected Years

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1987, 1990, 1992, and 1993 panels.


As shown in Figure IND 4b, the percentage of all AFDC recipients living in families with at least one full-time labor force participant increased from 17 percent in 1987 to 20 percent in 1994.

In all years shown above, more than half of all AFDC recipients lived in families where no one participated in the labor force.

As shown in Table IND 4b, while 28 percent of AFDC recipients in 1992 lived in families with at least one labor force participant but no full-time participants, this percent decreased to 25 in 1994.

Table IND 4b. Percentage of AFDC Recipients in Families with Labor Force Participants, Selected Years

  No one In LF At least 1 in LF No one FT At least 1 FT Participant

Note: Full-time labor force participants are defined as those who usually work 35 or more hours per week.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1987, 1990, 1992, and 1993 panels.

1994 54.5 25.3 20.2
1993 56.5 25.7 17.8
1992 54.2 28.1 17.7
1991 57.8 23.7 18.5
1990 58.3 23.3 18.4
1988 58.3 28.1 16.6
1987 55.3 28.1 16.6

Indicator 5. Program Spell Duration

One critical aspect of dependence is how long individuals receive means-tested assistance. This indicator provides information on the length of individual spells.

Figure IND 5. Spells of Program Participation, 1993 SIPP Panel

Figure IND 5. Spells of Program Participation, 1993 SIPP Panel

Source: Table IND 5.


Short spells lasting less than 4 months accounted for 31 percent of AFDC spells, 24 percent of SSI spells, and 33 percent of Food Stamp spells.

Over one-half of all AFDC and Food Stamp spells lasted less than one year (56 percent and 60 percent, respectively). In contrast, only 32 percent of SSI spells ended within one year. The percentage of SSI spells that lasted 20 or more months is twice the percentage of AFDC and Food Stamp spells that lasted this long.

As shown in Table IND 5, for AFDC spells, a larger percentage of short spells (lasting less than 4 months) and a smaller percentage of long spells (lasting 20 or more months) occurred among non-Hispanic whites compared to non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics.

As further shown in Table IND 5, a larger percentage of AFDC and Food Stamp spells among adults age 16 to 64 ended within 4 months compared to spells among children age 0 to 15.

Table IND 5. Percentage of AFDC, Food Stamp and SSI Spells for Indiviudals Entering Programs During the 1993 SIPP Panel by Length of Spell

  Percentage of Spells
  Spells <4 months Spells <12 months Spells <20 months Spells 20+ months

Note: Spell length categories are not mutually exclusive. Spells separated by only 1 month are not considered separate spells. Due to the length of the observation period, actual spell lengths for spells that lasted more than 20 months cannot be observed. For certain age and racial categories, data are not available (NA) because of insufficient sample size. Data on SSI recipiency for children are not available.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 Panel.

AFDC
Recipients 30.7 56.1 68.6 31.4
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 35.6 62.2 72.3 27.7
Non-Hispanic Black 24.6 52.3 66.7 33.3
Hispanic origin 30.8 52.5 63.4 36.6
Age Categories        
Children Age 0 to 15 28.1 53.6 65.6 34.4
Adults 16 to 64 years 33.5 59.0 72.2 27.8
SUPPLEMENTAL SECURITY INCOME
Recipients 24.0 31.9 36.6 63.4
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 27.2 34.6 40.8 59.2
Non-Hispanic Black 20.5 26.2 30.0 70.0
Hispanic origin 20.0 32.2 NA NA
Age Categories        
Adults 16 to 64 years 26.8 34.6 39.7 60.3
FOOD STAMPS
Recipients 33.1 59.9 70.0 30.0
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 34.3 62.1 71.5 28.5
Non-Hispanic Black 28.4 53.4 64.9 35.1
Hispanic origin 35.4 64.0 71.1 28.9
Age Categories        
Children Age 0 to 15 29.8 56.5 67.0 33.0
Adults 16 to 64 years 35.9 63.0 72.8 27.2

Indicator 6. Long-term Receipt

Lifetime welfare receipt often occurs in more than one episode. Indicators that measure the duration of receipt over a lifetime further reflect the depth of dependence.

Figure IND 6. Percentage of AFDC Recipients with Long-Term Receipt, 1982 – 1991

Figure IND 6. Percentage of AFDC Recipients with Long-Term Receipt, 1982 – 1991

Source: Table IND 6.


Between 1982 and 1991, almost half of all recipients received AFDC in only one or two years (47 percent) and only about one-fifth of all recipients received AFDC for 9 to 10 years (11 percent). Table IND 6 shows that this was also true between 1972 and 1981 (49 percent and 11 percent respectively).

As shown in Table IND 6, compared to non-black recipients, a smaller percentage of black recipients received AFDC for only 1 to 2 years while a larger percentage received AFDC for 9 to 10 years in both ten-year time periods.

As further shown in Table IND 6, a smaller percentage of child recipients experienced shortterm receipt and a larger percentage experienced longer-term receipt in both time periods relative to the percentages for all recipients.

Table IND 6. Percentage of AFDC Recipients with Long-Term Receipt

  All Recipients 1982 - 1991
Cumulative Years All Recipients Black Non-Black
1 - 2 Years 47 37 53
3 - 5 Years 28 27 28
6 - 8 Years 15 19 12
9 - 10 Years 11 17 6
  Children 0 - 5 in 1982: 1982-1991
Cumulative Years All Child Recipients Black Children Non-Black Children
1 - 2 Years 34 28 39
3 - 5 Years 29 28 30
6 - 8 Years 17 16 19
9 - 10 Years 20 29 13
  All Recipients 1972 - 1981
Cumulative Years All Recipients Black Non-Black
1 - 2 Years 49 32 59
3 - 5 Years 28 34 25
6 - 8 Years 13 19 9
9 - 10 Years 11 15 8
  Children 0 - 5 in 1972: 1972-1981
Cumulative Years All Child Recipients Black Children Non-Black Children

Note: Recipients are defined as individuals receiving at least $1 of AFDC or Food Stamps in the past year (1982 or 1972). Child recipients are defined by age in the first year.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1972 - 1991.

1 - 2 Years 37 24 46
3 - 5 Years 29 31 27
6 - 8 Years 15 23 10
9 - 10 Years 19 23 17

Indicator 7. Multiple Program Receipt

Data on multiple program receipt illustrates the nature of means-tested assistance “packages” and one aspect of the depth of dependence.

Figure IND 7. Percentage of Individuals in AFDC Families Receiving Other Assistance, 1994

Figure IND 7. Percentage of Individuals in AFDC Families Receiving Other Assistance, 1994

Source: Table IND 7.


  • The vast majority of the AFDC population receives AFDC benefits in combination with Food Stamps, SSI, or both Food Stamps and SSI. Only about 8 percent received AFDC benefits without other means-tested assistance in 1994, as shown in Figure IND 7.
  • The most common pattern of multiple program receipt in 1994, found among 89 percent of the AFDC population, was to receive both AFDC and Food Stamps. An additional 3 percent received AFDC, Food Stamps, and SSI. Finally, less than one-half percent received AFDC and SSI, but not Food Stamps. (Note that individuals may not receive both AFDC and SSI; however, a SSI recipient may be in a family where other members receive AFDC benefits.)
  • Over time, the proportion of AFDC recipients also receiving Food Stamps has been constant varying only between 88 and 90 percent.

Table IND 7. Percentage of Individuals in AFDC Families Receiving Assistance from Other Programs

  AFDC and Food Stamps Only AFDC and SSI Only
  1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
All Recipients 88.4 88.6 89.6 89.9 88.8 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3
Racial Categories                    
Non-Hispanic White 86.8 87.9 88.2 88.2 86.3 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.2 0.3
Non-Hispanic Black 88.3 87.0 90.1 90.6 89.8 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4
Hispanic 91.0 92.3 90.1 91.4 89.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3
Age Categories                    
Children Age 0-5 90.7 89.7 92.3 93.1 93.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Children Age 6-10 91.5 93.4 92.5 94.3 92.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Children Age 11-15 92.0 92.1 94.5 93.2 92.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
Women Age 16-64 84.9 85.0 85.8 84.5 82.4 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.7
Men Age 16-64 85.1 84.6 83.4 86.4 84.9 0.4 1.1 1.1 0.2 0.3
  AFDC, SSIand Food Stamps AFDC Only
  1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Note: Categories are mutually exclusive. Individuals may not receive both AFDC and SSI; however, an SSI recipient may be in a family where other members receive AFDC benefits.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1990, 1992, 1993 panels.

All Recipients 1.7 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.2 9.5 9.1 7.6 7.0 7.7
Racial Categories                    
Non-Hispanic White 1.9 1.7 2.6 3.4 3.7 11.0 9.9 7.8 8.3 9.7
Non-Hispanic Black 1.7 2.4 2.7 2.8 3.2 9.6 10.1 6.5 6.2 6.7
Hispanic 1.3 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.8 7.6 6.0 8.0 6.4 7.7
Age Categories                    
Children Age 0-5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.3 10.3 7.7 6.9 6.3
Children Age 6-10 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.5 6.6 7.5 5.7 7.6
Children Age 11-15 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 8.0 7.7 5.3 6.7 7.7
Women Age 16-64 4.1 4.6 5.8 7.8 8.9 10.3 9.6 7.6 7.2 8.0
Men Age 16-64 4.4 5.2 4.7 3.8 3.4 10.1 9.1 10.8 9.6 11.3

Indicator 8. Events Associated with the Beginning and Ending of Receipt of Means-tested Assistance

The circumstances that are associated with beginnings or endings of receipt of assistance. reveal an important aspect of dependence that provides critical guidance for policy makers.

Table IND 8a. Percentage of First AFDC Spell Beginnings Associated with Specific Events

  Spell Began 1973 - 1979 Spell Began 1980 - 1985 Spell Began 1986 - 1991

Note: Events are defined to be neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive. Work limitation is defined as a self-reported physical or nervous condition that limits the type of work or the amount of work the respondent can do.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1968 – 1992.

First birth to an unmarried, non-cohabiting mother 27.9 20.9 22.2
First birth to a married and/or cohabiting mother 13.3 17.4 11.3
Second (or higher order) birth 19.9 18.2 15.2
Divorce/separation 19.7 28.1 17.3
Mother's work hours decreased by more than 500 hours per year 26.3 18.8 26.2
Other adults' work hours decreased by more than 500 hours, but no change in family structure 34.8 27.9 21.6
Other adults' work hours decreased by more than 500 hours, and a change in family structure 4.7 7.9 11.4
Householder acquired work limitation 18.1 15.6 23.5
Other transfer income dropped by $1,000 or more (in 1996$) 4.5 6.5 4.1
Changed state of residence 4.5 10.6 5.4
  • Between 1986 and 1991, the most common events associated with the beginnings of a first AFDC episode were work-related: a decrease in mother’s work hours (26 percent), a decrease in work hours of another adult (22 percent), and the acquisition of a work limitation (24 percent). In addition, over one-fifth (22 percent) of first spells were associated with a first birth to an unmarried, non-cohabiting mother.
  • Between 1973 and 1979, first births to an unmarried, non-cohabiting mother were associated with 28 percent of first AFDC episodes. In contrast, such births were associated with 21 percent of first spells beginning between 1980 and 1985, and 22 percent beginning between 1986 and 1991.
  • The percentage of first AFDC spell beginnings associated with a householder acquiring a work limitation was higher for spells that began between 1986 and 1991 (24 percent) than for spells that began between 1973 and 1979 (16 percent) or 1980 to 1985 (18 percent).

Table IND 8b. Percentage of First AFDC Spell Endings Associated with Specific Events

  Spell Ended 1973 - 1979 Spell Ended 1980 – 1985 Spell Ended 1986 - 1991

Note: Events are defined to be neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive. Work limitation is defined as a selfreported physical or nervous condition that limits the type of work or the amount of work the respondent can do.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1968 - 1992.

Mother married or acquired cohabitor 16.1 17.1 21.7
Children under 18 no longer present 4.4 4.1 4.8
Mother's work hours increased by more than 500 hours per year 15.4 25.0 27.1
Other adults' work hours increased by more than 500 hours, but no change in family structure 21.8 16.8 16.7
Other adults' work hours increased by more than 500 hours, and a change in family structure 6.5 10.3 5.8
Householder no longer reports work limitation 13.0 19.2 15.8
Other transfer income increased by $1,000 or more (in 1996$) 5.0 5.5 5.8
Changed state of residence 5.9 11.0 5.9
  • During the 1986 to 1991 time period, over one-fourth (27 percent) of first AFDC spell endings were associated with increases in mother’s work hours. The corresponding percentage was slightly smaller for spells ending in the 1980 to 1985 period (25 percent) and much smaller for spells ending between 1973 and 1979 (15 percent).
  • In the 1973 - 1979 period, a greater percentage of spell endings was associated with an increase in work hours for other adults (22 percent) as compared to mothers (15 percent). In the more recent time period (1986 - 1991), a greater percentage of spell endings was associated with an increase in mother’s work hours (27 percent) compared to other adults (17 percent).

Indicator 9. Percent of the Population Receiving Means-tested Assistance

The rate of receipt reflects an important aspect of dependence by measuring the extent to which various population subgroups rely on the major means-tested programs.

Figure IND 9a. AFDC Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Figure IND 9a. AFDC Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (Available online at http://www.census.gov).


  • In all years between 1970 and 1997, the percentage of all children who received AFDC is much larger than that for adults.
  • Participation for children under age 18 increased substantially between 1970 and 1976. While remaining relatively stable through most of the 1980s, the trend again increased dramatically from 1990 to 1994 before declining to its current level.
  • Table IND 9a shows that between 1994 and 1997 the percentage of all children who received AFDC decreased more than three percentage points (from 14.0 percent to 10.8 percent).

Table IND 9a. AFDC/TANF Recipients as a Percent of the Population, Selected Years 1

  1970 1975 1980 1985 1988 1990 1994 1996 1997 4

1 The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 repealed the AFDC Program as of July 1, 1997 and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program.

2 Does not include the territories.

3 Includes a small number of dependents 18 and older who are students.

4 Average number of adults and children based on the first three quarter of 1997 only; data on number of adults and children under TANF not currently available.

Note: Only selected years of data presented in Figure IND 9a are included in the table.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance and U.S. Bureau of the Census, release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (available online at http://www.census.gov).

AFDC/TANF Recipients (millions) 2
Total Recipients 7.2 10.9 10.4 10.6 10.7 11.3 14.0 12.5 10.8
Adult Recipients 1.9 3.1 3.2 3.6 3.5 3.6 4.6 3.9 3.1
Child Recipients 3 5.3 7.8 7.2 7.0 7.2 7.6 9.5 8.6 7.7
AFDC/TANF RecipiencyRates (percent)
Total 3.5 5.0 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.5 5.4 4.7 4.0
Adults 1.4 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.4 2.0 1.6
Children 7.6 11.6 11.3 11.2 11.4 11.9 13.9 12.4 11.0

Figure IND 9b. Food Stamp Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Figure IND 9b. Food Stamp Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Source: USDA, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Analysis and Evaluation, Characteristics of Food Stamp Households, Summer 1996, and earlier reports and U.S. Bureau of the Census, release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (Available online at http://www.census.gov).


  • In all years between 1970 and 1997, the percentage of all children who received AFDC is much larger than that for adults.
  • Participation for children under age 18 increased substantially between 1970 and 1976. While remaining relatively stable through most of the 1980s, the trend again increased dramatically from 1990 to 1994 before declining to its current level.

Table IND 9a shows that between 1994 and 1997 the percentage of all children who received AFDC decreased more than three percentage points (from 14.0 percent to 10.8 percent).

  1975 1980 1985 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

1 Does not include the territories.

Note: Only selected years of data presented in Figure IND 9b are included in the table.

Source: USDA, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Analysis and Evaluation, Characteristics of Food Stamp Households, Summer 1996, and earlier reports and U.S. Bureau of the Census, release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (Available online at http://www.census.gov.)

Food Stamp Recipients (millions) 1
Total (all ages) 17.1 19.2 19.8 18.6 20.0 25.4 27.4 25.5
Adults (60 and over) NA 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.9
Adults (18 to 59) NA 7.2 8.3 7.5 8.1 10.5 11.5 10.8
Children NA 9.9 9.9 9.4 10.1 13.3 14.4 13.0
Food Stamp Recipiency Rates (percent)
Total (all ages) 7.9 8.4 8.3 7.6 8.0 9.9 10.5 9.6
Adults (60 and over) NA 4.9 4.5 3.7 3.6 4.0 4.5 4.3
Adults (18-59) NA 5.6 6.1 5.3 5.6 7.2 7.7 7.1
Children NA 15.5 15.8 14.8 15.8 20.2 21.2 18.8

Figure IND 9c. SSI Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Figure IND 9c. SSI Recipients as a Percent of the Population

Note: Recipients are reported as of December in each year.

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics (data available online at http://www.ssa.gov/statistics/ores_home.html) and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (Available online at http://www.census.gov).


  • In all years between 1974 and 1996, the percentage of adults 65 and older who received SSI is much larger than that for all other age groups.
  • Trends are similar for all persons under age 64 generally increasing between 1974 and 1996. For those 65 and older, the trend moves in the opposite direction decreasing dramatically from nearly 11 percent in 1974 to 6 percent in 1996.

Table IND 9c. SSI Recipients as a Percent of the Population, Selected Years

  Dec '75 Dec '80 Dec '85 Dec '88 Dec '90 Dec '92 Dec '94 Dec '96 Dec '97

1 December population figures used as the denominators are obtained by averaging the Census’ July 1 population estimate for the current and the following year.

2 Children includes some recipients 18 and older who are students.

Note: Only selected years of data presented in Figure IND 9c are included in the table.

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics (data available online at http://www.ssa.gov/statistics/ores_home.html) and U.S. Bureau of the Census, release PPL-91, United States Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1990 to 1997, (Available online at http://www.census.gov).

SSI Recipients (millions)
Total (all ages) 4.3 4.1 4.1 4.5 4.8 5.6 6.3 6.6 6.5
Adults (65 and over) 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
Adults (18 to 64) 1.7 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.5 3.5
Children 2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.9
SSI Recipiency Rates (percent)
Total (all ages) 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.4
Adults (65 and over) 10.9 8.6 7.1 6.6 6.5 6.5 6.4 6.2 6.0
Adults (18-64) 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.1
Children 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.3

Indicator 10. Rates of Participation in Means-tested Assistance Programs

Not all eligible households participate in means-tested programs. This indicator reflects “take up rates” – the number of families that actually participate in the program as a percent of those who are eligible.

Figure IND 10a. AFDC Caseload versus Number of Eligible Families: Number of Cases & Percentage of Total Eligibles

Figure IND 10a. AFDC Caseload versus Number of Eligible Families: Number of Cases & Percentage of Total Eligibles

Source: Participation rates estimated by the Urban Institute using TRIM model simulations. Caseload based on data from DHHS, Administration for Children and Families.


  • The percentage of all eligible families who participated in AFDC has varied between 77 percent and 86 percent according to estimates for selected years between 1981 and 1995. Estimates of the total eligible population varied from 4.5 million to over 6 million families over the same time period.

Table IND 10a. AFDC Caseload as a Percentage of Eligible Families

  1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1990 1992 1994 1995
Source: Participation rates estimated by the Urban Institute using TRIM model simulations. Caseload based on data from DHHS, Administration for Children and Families.
Average Monthly Eligibles 4,827 4,700 4,655 4,933 4,512 4,834 5,565 6,143 5,775
Average Caseload 3,871 3,651 3,692 3,784 3,771 3,974 4,768 5,046 4,869
Participation rate 80 78 79 77 84 82 86 82 84

Figure IND 10b. Food Stamp Households as a Percentage of Eligible Households

Figure IND 10b. Food Stamp Households as a Percentage of Eligible Households

Source: Table IND 10b.


  • In all years, larger percentages of children in eligible households received Food Stamps compared to other age groups, and smaller percentages of the elderly in eligible households received Food Stamps compared to other adults and children.
  • For disabled persons under age 60, the percentage in eligible households who received Food Stamps increased substantially between 1985 and 1994, from 47 percent in 1985 to 71 percent in 1994.

Table IND 10b. Food Stamp Households as a Percentage of Eligible Households

  Persons Households Elderly Children Disabled Under 60 Adults 18-59
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Trends in Food Stamp Program Participation Rates, various years.
August 1985 64 59 37 74 47 65
January 1988 59 56 34 70 55 66
January 1989 59 56 29 68 57 60
January 1992 74 69 33 86 67 77
January 1994 71 69 35 80 71 73

Figure IND 10c. SSI Adult Recipients as a Percentage of Eligible Adults

Figure IND 10c. SSI Adult Recipients as a Percentage of Eligible Adults

Source: Table IND 10c.


  • For all adults, the percentage of those eligible that received SSI remained constant between 1993 and 1994 (63 percent) and increased substantially in 1995 (from 63 percent to 70 percent).
  • For all adults in 1995, a larger percentage of eligible disabled adults in one-person units participated in the SSI program (74 percent) compared to both eligible aged adults in oneperson units (65 percent) and adults in married-couple units (52 percent).

Table IND 10c. SSI Adult Recipients by Type as a Percentage of Eligible Group

  1993 1994 1995

Note: The figure for married-couple units is based on very small sample sizes–married couple units were only about 5 percent of the adults units in the average month of 1995.

Source: Participation rate estimated by the Urban Institute using the TRIM model.

All adults 63 63 70
One-person units– aged NA NA 65
One-person units– disabled NA NA 74
Married-couple units NA NA 52

Indicator 11. Means-tested Assistance Program Transition Rates

This indicator shows how many people have moved onto means-tested assistance programs and how many recipients have moved off means-tested assistance programs.

Figure IND 11a. Percentage of Non-Recipients Moving on to Assistance from 1993 to 1994

Figure IND 11a. Percentage of Non-Recipients Moving on to Assistance from 1993 to 1994

Figure IND 11b. Percentage of Recipients Moving off Assistance from 1993 to 1994

Figure IND 11b. Percentage of Recipients Moving off Assistance from 1993 to 1994

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.


  • As shown in Figure IND 11a, only a small percentage of individuals who did not receive AFDC in 1993 began receiving AFDC benefits in 1994 (1 percent). In comparison, the percentage of non-recipients who began receiving Food Stamps in 1994 was slightly higher (2 percent) and the percentage of non-recipients who began receiving SSI in 1994 was lower (less than 1 percent).
  • As shown in Figure IND 11b, 18 percent of AFDC recipients in 1993 moved off AFDC in 1994. Similarly, 17 percent of Food Stamp recipients in 1993 were no longer receiving Food Stamp benefits in 1994. In contrast, only 9 percent of individuals who received SSI in 1993 left the SSI program in 1994.
  • Non-Hispanic whites are somewhat less likely to move from non-assistance to assistance than non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics, as shown in Table IND 11. For example, while only 1 percent of non-Hispanic white individuals who did not receive AFDC in 1993 began receiving AFDC benefits in 1994, the corresponding percentages for non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics were somewhat higher (3 percent).
  • As shown in Table IND 11, a much higher percentage of Hispanic AFDC recipients in 1993 exited AFDC in 1994 (25 percent) compared to both non-Hispanic whites and non-Hispanic blacks (17 percent and 12 percent, respectively).
  • As further shown in Table IND 11, men are much more likely to move off AFDC and Food Stamps than are women. For example, while 18 percent of women who received AFDC in 1993 were no longer receiving AFDC benefits in 1994, 33 percent of men who received AFDC in 1993 left the AFDC program in 1994.

Table IND 11. Means-Tested Assistance Program Transition Rates, 1993 to 1994

  Number andPercentage of Non-RecipientsMoving onto Assistance
  Non-AFDC to AFDC Non-FS to FS Non-SSI to SSI
  Number (thousands) Percent Number (thousands) Percent Number (thousands) Percent
All Persons 2215 1.0 3878 1.8 702 0.3
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 1159 0.6 2041 1.2 397 0.2
Non-Hispanic Black 503 3.0 922 4.7 155 0.6
Hispanic 437 2.7 734 4.3 114 0.5
Age Categories
Children Age 0 - 5 403 2.4 573 3.9 0 0
Children Age 6 - 10 313 1.9 518 3.6 0 0
Children Age 11 - 15 348 2.1 361 2.4 0 0
Women Age 16 - 64 780 1.0 1299 1.8 415 0.5
Men Age 16 – 64 343 0.4 982 1.3 264 0.3
Adults Age 65 and over 28 0.1 145 0.6 23 0.1
  Number and Percentage of RecipientsMoving off Assistance
  AFDC to Non-AFDC FS to Non-FS SSI to Non-SSI
  Number (thousands) Percent Number (thousands) Percent Number (thousands) Percent

Note: Receipt is measured by at least one month of receipt in a given year and non-receipt is measured as no months of receipt in a given year.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel

All Persons 2799 17.5 5184 16.6 453 8.5
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 1493 16.6 2999 21.5 232 8.8
Non-Hispanic Black 641 11.9 1012 11.4 162 10.7
Hispanic 583 25.0 1070 15.4 35 4.3
Age Categories
Children Age 0 - 5 610 15.3 818 13.7 0 0
Children Age 6 - 10 408 14.0 602 13.2 0 0
Children Age 11 - 15 308 14.3 464 12.6 0 0
Women Age 16 - 64 992 18.3 1796 17.6 288 12.2
Men Age 16 – 64 470 32.5 1418 26.2 118 9.3
Adults Age 65 and over 11 24.1 87 6.1 47 2.8

Indicator 12. Intergenerational Dependence

Another key aspect of dependence is the extent to which parental receipt of means-tested assistance is associated with receipt by their children when the children become adults.

Figure IND 12. Percentage of Youth Recipients (14 to 16) and Youth Non-Recipients (14 to 16) who Received Three Years of Benefits as Adults (25 to 27)

Figure IND 12. Percentage of Youth Recipients (14 to 16) and Youth Non-Recipients (14 to 16) who Received Three Years of Benefits as Adults (25 to 27)

Source: Table IND 12.


  • Individuals who receive AFDC or Food Stamps as children are more likely to receive benefits as adults, as shown in Figure IND 12. Almost one-third (31 percent) of women who received AFDC or Food Stamps in childhood between the ages of 14 and 16 also received AFDC or Food Stamps at ages 25, 26 and 27. In comparison, only 5 percent of women who did not receive AFDC or Food Stamps as youths received three years of benefits as adults.
  • The same relationship exists among men, although they have lower rates of receipt of means-tested assistance. As shown in Table IND 12, 14 percent of men who received AFDC or Food Stamps between the ages of 14 and 15 also received three years of benefits in adulthood and a much lower percentage – 2 percent – of men who did not receive AFDC or Food Stamps as youths received benefits at age 25, 26, and 27.
  • As shown in Table IND 12, 61 percent of women and 32 percent of men who received AFDC or Food Stamps between the ages of 14 and 16 also received AFDC or Food Stamp benefits in at least one year as adults between the ages of 25 and 27. These percentages are much larger than those for men and women who received benefits as children between the ages of 14 and 16 and received benefits as adults in all three years from age 25 to 27 (31 percent for women and 14 percent for men).

Table IND 12. Association of Benefit Receipt as Youth (14 to 16) with Benefit Receipt as Adults (25 to 27)

  Females born 1960 - 1964 Males born 1960 - 1964

Note: Receipt of AFDC or Food Stamps in a year refers to any amount at any point during the year.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1974 - 1992.

Percent who did not receive AFDC or Food Stamps between the ages of 14 and 16 who received AFDC or Food Stamps in all 3 years from age 25 to 27. 5.2 2.3
Percent who received AFDC or Food Stamps for all 3 years between the ages of 14 and 16 who also received AFDC or Food Stamps in all 3 years from age 25 to 27. 30.8 13.5
Percent who did not receive AFDC or Food Stamps between the ages of 14 and 16 who received AFDC or Food Stamps in at least 1 year from age 25 to 27. 10.0 8.5
Percent who received AFDC or Food Stamps for all 3 years between the ages of 14 and 16 who received AFDC or Food Stamps in at least 1 year from age 25 to 27. 61.3 31.8

Chapter III. Predictors and Risk Factors Associated with Welfare Receipt

The Welfare Indicators Act challenges the Department of Health and Human Services, and indirectly the Advisory Board on Welfare Indicators, to identify and set forth not only indicators of welfare dependence and welfare duration, but also predictors and causes of welfare receipt. Up to this point, welfare research has not established clear and definitive causes of welfare dependence. However, research has identified a number of risk factors associated with welfare utilization. For purposes of this report, the terms “predictors” and “risk factors” are used somewhat interchangeably, although the differences between them are acknowledged.

Where the Advisory Board recommended narrowing the focus of dependence indicators, it recommended an expansive view toward predictors and risk factors. The range of possible predictors is extremely wide, and until they are measured and analyzed over time as the PRWORA changes are implemented, their value will not be known. Some of the “predictors” included in this chapter may turn out to be simply correlates of welfare receipt, some may have a causal relationship, some may be consequences, and some may have predictive value.

For purposes of this report, the predictors/risk factors included in this chapter are grouped into three categories:

ECON. The first group includes measures associated with economic security. This group encompasses measures of poverty, child support receipt, food insecurity, health care coverage, household mobility, and adult incarceration. The poverty-related measures in this group include overall and child poverty rates, transitions in and out of poverty, lengths of poverty spells, events associated with entries and exits from poverty, intergenerational poverty, pre- and post-cash transfers poverty rates, and high-poverty neighborhoods. For ease of presentation, the tables and figures illustrating measures of economic security are labeled with the prefix ECON throughout this chapter.

WORK. The second grouping (labeled with the WORK prefix) includes factors related to employment and barriers to employment. Data on labor force attachment and earnings for low-skilled workers are included, as are data on barriers to work. The latter category includes incidence of adult disabilities and children with chronic health conditions, adult substance abuse, levels of educational attainment and school drop-out rates, and child care costs.

TEEN. The final group addresses behavioral issues primarily affecting teenagers. This category includes out-of-wedlock childbearing data, onset of sexual activity, teen substance abuse and arrest data, and information on teens who are neither in school nor working. The tables and figures in this subsection are labeled with the TEEN prefix.

As noted above, the predictors/risk factors included in this chapter do not represent an exhaustive list of measures. They are, in fact, a sampling of available data that address in some way the question of how a family is faring on the deprivation/well-being scale. Such questions are a necessary part of the dependence discussion during this time of major change in the welfare rules. It is important to examine whether decreases in dependence measures are accompanied by improvements in family well-being (as, for example, if work activities increase) or by reductions in family’s material circumstance (which could happen as families lose access to benefits because of time limits or sanctions).

Economic Security Risk Factor 1. Poverty Rates

Poverty rates illustrate the economic condition of families and, as such, a key risk factor of dependence.

Figure ECON 1a. Percentage in Poverty by Age

Figure ECON 1a. Percentage in Poverty by Age

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and unpublished tables available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html.


  • The percentage of people living in poverty fell from 13.7 percent to 13.3 percent between 1996 and 1997. This decline continues the trend since 1993, when poverty rates were at a ten-year high of 15.1 percent.
  • Children, particularly young children, have much higher poverty rates than the overall population. The poverty rate for related children under 6 reached 25.7 percent in 1992. Since then it has declined, falling to 21.6 percent in 1997.
  • Table Econ 1a shows that the poverty rate for blacks declined from 28.4 percent in 1996 to 26.5 percent in 1997. It still remains higher than the 11.0 percent rate for whites. The poverty rate for Hispanics also dropped between 1996 and 1997 from 29.4 percent to 27.1 percent.

Table ECON 1a. Number and Percentage of Persons in Poverty by Age, Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin, Selected Years

  Related Children All Persons      
Year Under 6 6-17 Total Under 181 18 to 64 65 & over White Black Hispanic Origin2

1 Persons under 18 include both related children (own children, including stepchildren and adopted children, plus all other
children in the household who are related to the householder by blood, marriage, or adoption) and unrelated individuals under 18
who are not living with any relatives.

2 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and
unpublished tables available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html.

1959 NA NA 22.4 27.3 17.0 35.2 18.1 55.1 NA
1963 NA NA 19.5 23.1 NA NA 15.3 NA NA
1966 NA NA 14.7 17.6 10.5 28.5 11.3 41.8 NA
1969 15.3 13.1 12.1 14.0 8.7 25.3 9.5 32.2 NA
1973 15.7 13.6 11.1 14.4 8.3 16.3 8.4 31.4 21.9
1976 17.7 15.1 11.8 16.0 9.0 15.0 9.1 31.1 24.7
1979 17.9 15.1 11.7 16.4 8.9 15.2 9.0 31.0 21.8
1980 20.3 16.8 13.0 18.3 10.1 15.7 10.2 32.5 25.7
1981 22.0 18.4 14.0 20.0 11.1 15.3 11.1 34.2 26.5
1982 23.3 20.4 15.0 21.9 12.0 14.6 12.0 35.6 29.9
1983 24.6 20.4 15.2 22.3 12.4 13.8 12.1 35.7 28.0
1984 23.4 19.7 14.4 21.5 11.7 12.4 11.5 33.8 28.4
1985 22.6 18.8 14.0 20.7 11.3 12.6 11.4 31.3 29.0
1986 21.6 18.8 13.6 20.5 10.8 12.4 11.0 31.1 27.3
1987 22.3 18.9 13.4 20.3 10.6 12.5 10.4 32.4 28.0
1988 21.8 17.5 13.0 19.5 10.5 12.0 10.1 31.3 26.7
1989 21.9 17.4 12.8 19.6 10.2 11.4 10.0 30.7 26.2
1990 23.0 18.2 13.5 20.6 10.7 12.2 10.7 31.9 28.1
1991 24.0 19.5 14.2 21.8 11.4 12.4 11.3 32.7 28.7
1992 25.7 19.4 14.8 22.3 11.9 12.9 11.9 33.4 29.6
1993 25.6 20.0 15.1 22.7 12.4 12.2 12.2 33.1 30.6
1994 24.5 19.5 14.5 21.8 11.9 11.7 11.7 30.6 30.7
1995 23.7 18.3 13.8 20.8 11.4 10.5 11.2 29.3 30.3
1996 22.7 18.4 13.7 20.5 11.4 10.8 11.2 28.4 29.4
1997 21.6 18.0 13.3 19.9 10.9 10.5 11.0 26.5 27.1
  • The percentage of people living in poverty increased 2.3 percentage points to a level of 15.1 percent between 1989 and 1992 and has since declined to 13.3 percent as the economy has recovered from the recession.

Figure ECON 1b. Percentage of Population Below 50 and 100 Percent of Poverty

Figure ECON 1b. Percentage of Population Below 50 and 100 Percent of Poverty

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and unpublished tables available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html.


  • Since 1975, the percentage of the population with incomes below 50 percent of the poverty threshold has risen and fallen in a pattern that reflects to some degree the trend in the overall poverty rate. For example, the percentage of people below 50 percent of poverty rose from a low of 3.3 percent in 1976 to a high of 5.9 percent in 1983 and then after falling slightly, rose to a second peak of 6.2 percent in 1993. The overall poverty rate – the percentage of people below 100 percent of poverty – also peaked in 1983 and 1993 in a somewhat similar pattern, although with more pronounced peaks and valleys.
  • Over the past two decades, however, there has been an overall increase in the proportion of the poverty population that falls below 50 percent of the poverty level. Whereas the population below 50 percent of the poverty threshold was 30 percent of the poverty population in 1975, it rose to 39 percent of the total poverty population by 1983, and to 41 percent by 1997.
  • Between 1995 and 1997, the percentage of the total population with incomes below 50 percent of the poverty level increased slightly, from 5.3 percent to 5.4 percent, in contrast to the decline in the overall poverty level, from 13.8 percent to 13.3 percent.

Table ECON 1b. Number and Percentage of People Below 50, 75, 100, and 125 Percent of Poverty Level, 1975 – 1997

(in Thousands)

    Below 50 percent Below 75 percent Below 100 percent Below 125 percent
Year Total Population Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and unpublished tables available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html.
1975 210,900 7,700 3.7 15,400 7.3 25,900 12.3 37,100 17.6
1976 212,300 7,000 3.3 14,900 7.0 25,000 11.8 35,500 16.7
1977 213,900 7,500 3.5 15,000 7.0 24,700 11.6 35,700 16.7
1978 215,700 7,700 3.6 14,900 6.9 24,500 11.4 34,100 15.8
1979 222,900 8,600 3.8 16,300 7.3 26,100 11.7 36,600 16.4
1980 225,000 9,800 4.4 18,700 8.3 29,300 13.0 40,700 18.1
1981 227,200 11,200 4.9 20,700 9.1 31,800 14.0 43,800 19.3
1982 229,400 12,800 5.6 23,200 10.1 34,400 15.0 46,600 20.3
1983 231,700 13,600 5.9 23,600 10.2 35,300 15.2 47,000 20.3
1984 233,800 12,800 5.5 22,700 9.7 33,700 14.4 45,400 19.4
1985 236,600 12,400 5.2 22,200 9.4 33,100 13.6 44,200 18.7
1986 238,600 12,700 5.3 22,400 9.4 32,400 14.0 44,600 18.7
1987 241,000 12,500 5.2 21,700 9.0 32,200 13.4 43,100 17.9
1988 243,500 12,700 5.2 21,400 8.8 31,700 13.0 42,600 17.5
1989 246,000 12,000 4.9 20,700 8.4 31,500 12.8 42,600 17.3
1990 248,600 12,900 5.2 22,600 9.1 33,600 13.5 44,800 18.0
1991 251,200 14,100 5.6 24,400 9.7 35,700 14.2 47,500 18.9
1992 256,500 15,500 6.1 26,200 10.2 38,000 14.8 50,500 19.7
1993 259,300 16,000 6.2 27,200 10.5 39,300 15.1 51,900 20.0
1994 261,600 15,400 5.9 26,400 10.1 38,100 14.5 50,500 19.3
1995 263,700 13,900 5.3 24,500 9.3 36,400 13.8 48,800 18.5
1996 266,200 14,400 5.4 24,800 9.3 36,500 13.7 49,300 18.5
1997 268,500 14,600 5.4 24,200 9.0 35,600 13.3 47,800 17.8
  • In 1997, there were 35.6 million people with family income below 100 percent of the poverty threshold, as shown in Table ECON 1b. This included 14.6 million people with incomes below 50 percent of the poverty threshold.

Economic Security Risk Factor 2. Poverty Transition Rates

Data on poverty transitions show the extent of new entries into and exits from poverty.

Figure ECON 2a. Percentage of Poor Individuals Moving out of Poverty from 1993 to 1994

Figure ECON 2a. Percentage of Poor Individuals Moving out of Poverty from 1993 to 1994

Figure ECON 2b. Percentage of Non-Poor Individuals Moving into Poverty from 1993 to 1994

Figure ECON 2b. Percentage of Non-Poor Individuals Moving into Poverty from 1993 to 1994

Source: Table ECON 2.


  • As shown in Figure ECON 2a, nearly one-quarter (24 percent) of all individuals who were poor in 1993 moved out of poverty in 1994. The percentage of poor non-Hispanic whites who exited poverty in 1994 (29 percent) was larger than the corresponding percentages for non-Hispanic blacks (17 percent) and Hispanics (24 percent).
  • Only 3 percent of all individuals who were above the poverty line in 1993 became poor in 1994, as shown in Figure ECON 2b. A larger percentage of Hispanic individuals who were not poor in 1993 entered poverty in 1994 (7 percent) compared to both non-Hispanic Blacks (5 percent) and non-Hispanic whites (3 percent).
  • As shown in Table ECON 2, 33 percent of men age 16 to 64 who were poor in 1993 moved out of poverty in 1994, compared to only 27 percent of women age 16 to 64. Poor adults age 65 or older were even less likely to exit poverty than poor adults age 16 to 64: only 15 percent of the elderly poor population in 1993 exited poverty in 1994.

Table ECON 2. Percentage of Individuals Changing Poverty Status, 1993-1994

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.
  From Poor to Non-Poor
All Poor Persons 23.8
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 29.4
Non-Hispanic Black 17.1
Hispanic 23.6
Age Categories
Children Age 0 - 5 19.9
Children Age 6 - 10 19.2
Children Age 11 - 15 19.3
Women Age 16 - 64 26.5
Men Age 16 - 64 32.7
Adults Age 65 and over 14.9
  From Non-Poor to Poor
All Non-Poor Persons 3.2
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 2.5
Non-Hispanic Black 5.4
Hispanic 7.4
Age Categories
Children Age 0 - 5 5.0
Children Age 6 - 10 4.9
Children Age 11 - 15 3.4
Women Age 16 - 64 3.5
Men Age 16 - 64 2.6
Adults Age 65 and over 2.0

Economic Security Risk Factor 3. Poverty Spells

The length of a poverty episode illustrates one aspect of the risk of dependence.

Figure ECON 3. Length of Spells of Poverty for Persons Who Became Poor during the 1993 SIPP Panel

Figure ECON 3. Length of Spells of Poverty for Persons Who Became Poor during the 1993 SIPP Panel

Source: Table ECON 3.


  • Nearly half (47 percent) of all poverty spells ended within 4 months and three-quarters of all poverty spells ended within one year. Only 16 percent of all poverty spells were 20 months or longer.
  • As shown in Table ECON 3, a larger percentage of poverty spells among non-Hispanic blacks were 20 months or longer (23 percent) than was the case for spells among non-Hispanic whites (14 percent) and among Hispanics (15 percent).
  • Spells of poverty among adults age 65 and older tend to last longer than poverty spells among adults age 16 to 64 and spells among children age 0 to 15. As shown in Table ECON 3, only 65 percent of poverty spells among adults age 65 and older ended within one year compared to 80 percent for women age 16 to 64, 75 percent for men age 16 to 64, and 73 percent for children age 0 to 15.

Table ECON 3. Percentage of Poverty Spells for Individuals Entering Poverty during the 1993 SIPP Panel by Length of Spell

  Percent of Spells
  Spells <4 months Spells <12 months Spells <20 months Spells 20+ months

Note: Spell length categories are not mutually exclusive. Spells separated by only 1 month are not considered separate spells. Due to the length of the observation period, actual spell lengths for spells that lasted more than 20 months cannot be observed.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

All persons 47.3 75.4 84.3 15.7
Racial Categories        
Non-Hispanic White 47.3 78.8 86.3 13.7
Non-Hispanic Black 39.9 64.1 76.7 23.3
Hispanic origin 42.5 74.4 84.7 15.3
Age Categories        
Children Age 0 to 15 43.8 73.0 82.2 17.8
Women Age 16 - 64 47.6 79.9 88.9 11.1
Men Age 16 - 64 51.6 75.2 84.2 15.8
65 years and over 40.7 65.4 73.0 27.0

Economic Security Risk Factor 4. Long-term Poverty

As with welfare, poverty experiences often occur in a number of discrete episodes. Measures that illustrate the total length of poverty episodes reveal an important aspect of the severity of the risk of dependence.

Figure ECON 4. Percentage of Children Ages 0 to 5 in 1982 Living in Poverty by Cumulative Number of Years in Poverty

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Source: Table ECON 4.


  • Among children who were age 0 to 5 in 1982, nearly three-quarters (73 percent) never lived in poverty for any year over the next ten years, as shown in Figure ECON 4. The percentage of children who remained above the poverty line in all years between 1972 and 1981 is similar although somewhat larger (76 percent), as shown in Table ECON 4.
  • During the 1982 to 1991 period, 28 percent of black children experienced longer-term poverty of 6 to 10 years, a percentage much higher than that for non-black children during the same ten-year time period (3 percent).
  • For both time periods, the percentages of all individuals who were poor for only one to two years are much larger than the percentages of all individuals who experienced longer-term poverty, as shown in Table ECON 4. For example, while 11 percent of all individuals were poor for only one to two years between 1982 and 1991, only 3 percent were poor for 6 to 8 years and only 2 percent were poor for 9 to 10 years during the same time period.
  • As shown in Table ECON 4, a somewhat larger percentage of children compared to the percentage of total persons experienced long-term poverty in both time periods, especially long-term poverty of 9 to 10 years.
Table ECON 4. Percentage of Individuals Living in Poverty by Number of Years in Poverty
Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1972 - 1991.
  All Persons: 1982 – 1991
Cumulative Years in Poverty All Persons Black Non-Black
0 Years 78.8 50.6 82.9
1 - 2 Years 11.3 14.9 10.7
3 - 5 Years 5.3 14.4 4.0
6 - 8 Years 2.8 11.2 2.0
9 - 10 Years 1.8 8.9 0.7
  100 100 100
  Children 0 - 5 in 1982: 1982-1991
Cumulative Years in Poverty All Children Black Children Non-Black Children
0 Years 73.3 40.9 79.2
1 - 2 Years 12.3 16.5 11.6
3 - 5 Years 7.5 14.8 6.1
6 - 8 Years 3.2 11.1 1.7
9 - 10 Years 3.8 16.8 1.4
  100 100 100
  All Persons: 1972 - 1981
Cumulative Years in Poverty All Persons Black Non-Black
0 Years 79.2 45.6 83.7
1 - 2 Years 12.3 20 11.3
3 - 5 Years 4.6 16.6 3.1
6 - 8 Years 2.5 10.4 1.5
9 – 10 Years 1.2 7.5 0.4
  100 100 100
  Children 0 - 5 in 1972: 1972-1981
Cumulative Years in Poverty All Children Black Children Non-Black Children
0 Years 75.6 34.1 82.3
1 - 2 Years 13.1 21.7 11.7
3 - 5 Years 5.6 20.5 3.2
6 - 8 Years 3.2 11.1 1.9
9 – 10 Years 2.5 12.8 0.9
  100 100 100

Economic Security Risk Factor 5. Events Associated with the Beginning and Ending of a Poverty Spell

Events that trigger the beginning or ending of a poverty episode indicate an increased or decreased likelihood of future dependence.

Table ECON 5a. Percentage of First Poverty Spell Beginnings Associated with Specific Events

  Spell Began 1973 – 1979 Spell Began 1980 - 1985 Spell Began 1986 - 1991

Note: Events are defined to be neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive. Work limitation is defined as a self-reported physical or nervous condition that limits the type of work or the amount of work the respondent can do.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1968 - 1992.

First birth to an unmarried, non-cohabiting mother 4.2 5.8 7.3
First birth to other circumstances 2.3 4.5 2.3
Second (or higher order) birth 9.2 10.2 17.9
Divorce/separation 10.9 16.2 14.6
Mother's work hours decreased by more than 500 hours per year 12.5 21.4 28.6
Other adults' work hours decreased by more than 500 hours, but no change in family structure 29.0 27.6 27.7
Other adults' work hours decreased by more than 500 hours, and a change in family structure 24.6 22.9 16.3
Householder acquired work limitation 13.9 17.2 23.7
Other transfer income dropped by $1,000 or more (in 1996$) 5.9 3.5 2.9
Changed state of residence 7.5 10.0 8.0
  • During the 1986 to 1991 time period, first poverty spell beginnings were most often associated with a second or higher order birth (18 percent), a decrease in mothers’ work hours (29 percent), a decrease in other’s work hours (28 percent and 16 percent), or a work limitation (24 percent).
  • The percentages of first poverty spell beginnings associated with decreases in mothers’ work hours increased dramatically over the three time periods, from 13 percent in the earliest period to 29 percent in the most recent period.
  • The percentages of first poverty episodes associated with the householder acquiring a work limitation increased over time to nearly one-quarter (24 percent) of all first poverty spells beginning between 1986 and 1991.

Table ECON 5b. Percentage of First Poverty Spell Endings Associated with Specific Events

  Spell Ended 1973 – 1979 Spell Ended 1980 - 1985 Spell Ended 1986 - 1991

Note: Events are defined to be neither mutually exclusive nor exhaustive. Work limitation is defined as a self-reported physical or nervous condition that limits the type of work or the amount of work the respondent can do.

Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1968 - 1992.

Mother married or acquired cohabitor 14.2 14.0 11.5
Children under 18 no longer present 2.0 1.3 4.3
Mother's work hours increased by more than 500 hours 19.8 22.5 21.1
Other adults' work hours increased by more than 500 hours, but no change in family structure 23.7 29.5 22.5
Other adults' work hours increased by more than 500 hours, and a change in family structure 12.1 8.5 8.1
Householder no longer reports work limitation 14.3 19.1 20.1
Other transfer income increased by $1,000 or more (in 1996$) 4.2 5.3 3.8
Changed state of residence 8.9 14.0 9.5
  • Between 1986 and 1991, most first poverty spell exits were associated with increased work hours of mothers (21 percent), increased work hours for other adults (23 percent) or a change in work limitations (20 percent).
  • The percentage of first poverty spell endings associated with marriage or cohabitation decreased somewhat in the 1986 to 1991 time period relative to the earlier time periods (from 14 to 12 percent).
  • The percentages of first poverty spell endings associated with increases in transfer income remained relatively stable over the three time periods (around 4 to 5 percent).
  • The percentages of spell endings associated with a householder no longer reporting a work limitation increased between the first two time periods and remained stable between the last two time periods.

Economic Security Risk Factor 6. Intergenerational Poverty

The extent to which parental poverty is associated with poverty of their children as adults illustrates a significant risk to current and future dependence.

Figure ECON 6. Poverty Status in 1990 of Persons under 18 and Poor in 1970

Figure ECON 6. Poverty Status in 1990 of Persons under 18 and Poor in 1970

Source: Table ECON 6.


  • Among children who were age 0 to 18 and lived in poor families in 1970, 17 percent of white children and 38 percent of black children also lived in poverty as adults in 1990. In other words, poor black children were more than twice as likely as poor white children to be poor as adults.
  • Similar percentages of white and black children who were age 0 to 18 and poor in 1970 were “near-poor” (above 100 percent but less than 200 percent of the poverty level) as adults in 1990 (30 percent for whites and 28 percent for blacks). In contrast, white children were much more likely to be living above 200 percent of the poverty level as adults in 1990 (53 percent) than were black children (34 percent).

Table ECON 6. Poverty Status in 1990 of Persons Who Were under 18 and Poor in 1970

  Income under 100% of Poverty Income between 100% and 200% of Poverty Income at or above 200% of Poverty
Source: Unpublished data from the PSID, 1970 and 1990.
White 16.6 30.4 53.2
Black 37.8 28.1 34.2

Economic Security Risk Factor 7. Pre-transfer and Posttransfer Poverty Rates

Trends in the pre- and post-transfer rates of poverty which show the anti-poverty effectiveness of social security and of the major means-tested assistance program benefits.

Figure ECON 7. Poverty Rate of All Persons in Families with Related Children Under 18 Using Alternative Definitions of Income, 1979-1996

Figure ECON 7. Poverty Rate of All Persons in Families with Related Children Under 18 Using Alternative Definitions of Income, 1979-1996

Note: The pre-transfer rate measures poverty in terms of cash income (only) before all transfers. The official rate measures it in terms of cash income plus social security and means-tested cash transfers. The post-transfer rate measures poverty after adding not only social security and means-tested cash transfers but also the market value of food and housing benefits plus taxes (including the refundable EITC as well as Federal payroll and income taxes); it does not include the fungible value of Medicare and Medicaid.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.


  • In all years reported, the pre-transfer poverty rate for families with related children under age18 was much higher than both the official poverty rate and the post-transfer poverty rate.
  • Table ECON 7 shows that the total effect of transfers and taxes was to reduce the poverty rate by 6.1 percentage points in 1972, 4.2 percentage points in 1983, and 6.7 percentage points in 1996.

Table ECON 7. Antipoverty Effectiveness of Cash and Near-Cash Transfers for All Persons in Families with Related Children Under 18, Selected Fiscal Years

  1979 1983 1989 1993 1995 1996

Note: EITC denotes Earned Income Tax Credit. The pre-transfer rate measures poverty in terms of cash income (only) before all transfers. The official rate measures it in terms of cash income plus social security and means-tested cash transfers. The post-transfer rate measures poverty after adding not only social security and means-tested cash transfers but also the market value of food and housing benefits plus taxes (including the refundable EITC as well as Federal payroll and income taxes); it does not include the fungible value of Medicare and Medicaid.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.

Total Population (in millions) 133.4 132.1 135.4 144.6 146.2 146.8
Pre-Transfer Poor Population (in millions) 22.1 28.9 25.2 32.2 29.2 28.7
Percent of Poor Persons Removed from Poverty Due to:            
    Social Insurance (other than Social Security) 4.4 6.9 3.4 4.2 3.5 2.7
    Social Security 9.1 5.9 6.5 6.3 6.1 6.3
    Means-Tested Cash 8.2 3.5 5.1 5.8 6.6 6.3
    Food and Housing Benefits 16.5 8.7 11.7 10.2 12.5 11.2
    EITC and Fed. Payroll and Income Taxes -1.7 -5.8 -2.8 2.3 6.6 7.6
Total Percent of Pre-Transfer Poor Removed from Poverty by All Transfers 36.6 19.1 23.9 28.9 35.2 34.1
Poverty Rate (in percent):            
    Cash Income Before Transfers (pre-transfer) 16.6 21.9 18.6 22.3 20.0 19.6
    Plus Social Ins. (other than Social Security) 15.8 20.4 18.0 21.4 19.3 19.1
    Plus Social Security 14.3 19.1 16.8 20.0 18.1 17.8
    Plus Means-Tested Cash Transfers (official poverty rate) 12.9 18.4 15.8 18.7 16.8 16.6
    Plus Food and Housing Benefits 10.2 16.5 13.6 16.4 14.3 14.4
    Plus EITC, less Fed. Payroll & Income Taxes (post-trans.) 10.5 17.7 14.1 15.9 13.0 12.9
    Total Reduction in Poverty Rate 6.1 4.2 4.5 6.4 7.0 6.7
  • Table ECON 7 shows that a substantial percentage of the poor population was removed from poverty by transfers in all years shown. The percentage of poor persons removed from poverty due to transfers was 37 percent in 1979, declining to 19 percent in 1983, and rising to 34 percent in 1996.
  • Table ECON 7 shows that the percentage of the poor population removed from poverty due to food and housing benefits is much larger in all reported years than the percentage removed due to other transfers. In 1996, more than 11 percent of the poor population was removed from poverty due to food and housing benefits.
  • Table ECON 7 also shows that whereas tax policies, including the EITC and Federal payroll and income taxes, did not remove any poor individuals from poverty in 1979, 1983, and 1989, the trend reversed in 1993. By 1996, EITC net of Federal payroll and income taxes removed about 8 percent of the poor population from poverty

Economic Security Risk Factor 8. Child SUPPORT

Child support provides critical income to families with children and reduces the likelihood of dependence. These child support risk factors reflect the presence and magnitude of child support payments made by noncustodial parents for families receiving services from the Child Support Enforcement Program.

Figure ECON 8a. Total, Non-AFDC/TANF, and AFDC/TANF Title IV-D Child Support Collections, 1978 – 1997

Figure ECON 8a. Total, Non-AFDC/TANF, and AFDC/TANF Title IV-D Child Support Collections, 1978 – 1997

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.


  • Total collections paid through the Child Support Enforcement system (Title IV-D of the Social Security Act) grew at an annual rate of growth of 14.4 percent (current dollars) from FY 1978 to FY 1997. The average rate of growth was higher for collections on behalf of non-AFDC families (16.5 percent) than for collections on behalf of AFDC families (9.9 percent). This rate of growth is attributable to both increases in the number of noncustodial parents paying child support and increases in the amount of child support paid per case.

Table ECON 8a. Total, Non-AFDC/TANF, and AFDC/TANF Title IV-D Child Support Collections, 1978 to 1997

  Total Collections (In millions)  
  Total AFDC Collections    
Fiscal Year Current Dollars Constant '97 Dollars Total Payments to AFDC Families Federal & State Share of Collections Non-AFDC Collections Total IV-D Administrative Expenditures

Note: Not all states report current child support collections in all years. Constant dollar adjustments to 1997 level were made using a CPI-U-X1 fiscal year average price index.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.

1978 $1,047 $2,527 $472 $13 $459 $575 $312
1979 1,333 2,954 597 12 584 736 383
1980 1,478 2,937 603 10 593 874 466
1981 1,629 2,948 671 12 659 958 526
1982 1,771 2,992 786 15 771 985 612
1983 2,024 3,284 880 15 865 1,144 691
1984 2,378 3,696 1,000 17 983 1,378 723
1985 2,694 4,038 1,090 189 901 1,604 814
1986 3,249 4,750 1,225 275 955 2,019 941
1987 3,917 5,569 1,349 278 1,070 2,569 1,066
1988 4,605 6,290 1,486 289 1,188 3,128 1,171
1989 5,241 6,831 1,593 307 1,286 3,648 1,363
1990 6,010 7,462 1,750 334 1,416 4,260 1,606
1991 6,886 8,138 1,984 381 1,603 4,902 1,804
1992 7,964 9,136 2,259 435 1,824 5,705 1,995
1993 8,907 9,919 2,416 446 1,971 6,491 2,241
1994 9,850 10,686 2,550 457 2,093 7,300 2,556
1995 10,827 11,428 2,689 474 2,215 8,138 3,012
1996 12,020 12,344 2,855 480 2,375 9,165 3,055
1997 13,380 13,380 2,856 157 2,698 10,524 3,424
  • From FY 1984 through FY 1996, the first $50 dollars of each month’s child support collection was passed-through to families that were receiving AFDC benefits. The “Collections Paid to Families” shown in Table ECON 8a reflects this $50 pass-through and other benefit adjustments. In FY 1997, states were no longer required to continue the $50 pass-through, and so collections paid to families dropped from $480 million in FY 1996 to $157 million in FY 1997.

Figure ECON 8b. Average Annual Child Support Enforcement Payments for Current Support by Noncustodial Parents with an Obligation and Payment in Nominal and Constant 1997 Dollars, 1986 to 1997

Figure ECON 8b. Average Annual Child Support Enforcement Payments for Current Support by Noncustodial Parents with an Obligation and Payment in Nominal and Constant 1997 Dollars, 1986 to 1997

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998, and Twentieth Annual Report to Congress, for the period ending September 30, 1995 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.


  • Figure ECON 8b represents the average annual payment of current support by noncustodial parents for families receiving services through the child support enforcement system. Payments on behalf of families not receiving AFDC were about twice as large as those payments for families receiving AFDC. (Note that many families not on AFDC may have received AFDC sometime in the past.)
  • As shown in Table ECON 8b, annual payments in current dollars on behalf of AFDC and non-AFDC families have increased by more than 40 percent between FY 1986 and FY 1997. However, when converted to constant dollars, per capita payments have not quite kept pace with inflation.
  • In FY 1996, collections were received from about 60 percent of the cases with orders and those collections represented about 52 percent of the current child support due (Table ECON 8b2). About 32 percent of the current support due on behalf of AFDC families is collected, compared to 60 percent collected on behalf of families not receiving AFDC.

Table ECON 8b1. Average Annual Child Support Enforcement Payments for Current Support by Noncustodial Parents with an Obligation and Payment in Nominal and Constant Dollars, 1986 – 1997

  AFDC/TANF Non-AFDC/TANF Totals  
  Current Dollars Constant ’97 Dollars Current Dollars Constant ’97 Dollars Current Dollars Constant ’97 Dollars FY CPI-U
1986-97              
– change $402 -$27 $379 -$515 $685 $23 50.5
– percent 41.9% -1.9% 19.6% -18.2% 47.8% 1.1% 46.2%
Note: Data for 1997 are preliminary and does not include information from Florida, Hawaii, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998, and Twenty-first Annual Report to Congress, for the period ending September 30, 1996 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.
1986 $959 $1,402 $1,936 $2,830 $1,433 $2,095 109.3
1987 910 1,294 1,851 2,632 1,416 2,013 112.4
1988 975 1,332 1,793 2,449 1,468 2,005 117.0
1989 1,046 1,363 1,770 2,307 1,457 1,899 122.6
1990 1,110 1,378 1,998 2,481 1,672 2,076 128.7
1991 1,049 1,240 1,989 2,351 1,711 2,022 135.2
1992 1,210 1,388 2,314 2,655 1,919 2,201 139.3
1993 1,230 1,370 2,498 2,782 1,990 2,216 143.5
1994 1,178 1,278 2,266 2,458 1,889 2,049 147.3
1995 1,294 1,366 2,595 2,739 2,167 2,287 151.4
1996 1,280 1,315 2,591 2,661 2,152 2,210 155.6
1997 1,361 1,361 2,315 2,315 2,118 2,118 159.8

Table ECON 8b2. Proportion of IV-D Cases with Orders and Collections and Proportion of Amount Paid to Amount Due, FY 1996 (In millions)

  AFDC Cases Non-AFDC Cases Total Cases

Note: FY 1997 data are not available.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1996 Data Report, Washington, DC, 1997 and unpublished data.

Number of Cases with Orders (Current Support) 2.44 4.13 6.57
Number of Cases with Collections (Current Support) 1.20 2.76 3.96
Percent of Cases with Collection (Current Support) 49% 67% 60%
Amount of Current Support Due $4,795 $11,971 $16,766
Amount of Current Support Paid $1,535 $ 7,150 $ 8,684
Percent Paid 32% 60% 52%

Figure ECON 8c. Percentage of Single Mothers Receiving Child Support by Marital Status and Receipt of Income Assistance, 1977 – 1996

Figure ECON 8c. Percentage of Single Mothers Receiving Child Support by Marital Status and Receipt of Income Assistance, 1977 – 1996

Source: Elaine Sorensen, the Urban Institute, unpublished data from the March Current Population Survey Public Use Files, 1978 – 1997.


  • Single mothers enrolled in the AFDC program are less likely than other single mothers to receive child support, even after controlling for marital status. Since the authorization of the Child Support Enforcement program in the mid-1970s, the proportion of single AFDC mothers receiving child support has generally increased, resulting in a narrowing of the gap between AFDC and non-AFDC mothers. Between 1995 and 1996, however, the proportion of AFDC recipients receiving child support declined, following drops in the AFDC caseload and shifts in its composition.

Table ECON 8c. Percentage of Single Mothers Receiving Child Support and Alimony by Marital Status and Receipt of Income Assistance, 1977 – 1996

  Divorced Separated Never Married
  AFDC Non-AFDC AFDC Non-AFDC AFDC Non-AFDC
1977-96 Change 14.5 -4.0 13.2 -0.6 13.2 14.8

Note: Married women also receive child support, but the proportion of eligible married women cannot be identified on the March CPS file. Child support and alimony were not collected as separate items prior to 1988. They are left combined for all years to ensure comparability across years.

Source: Elaine Sorensen, the Urban Institute, unpublished data from the March Current Population Survey Public Use Files,
1978 - 1997.

1977 13.2 57.5 7.1 34.2 2.6 3.7
1978 14.0 56.1 7.2 32.4 5.4 9.9
1979 12.2 55.2 9.3 34.3 4.6 9.9
1980 13.0 53.3 7.4 28.4 1.8 9.2
1981 13.9 56.9 10.4 33.2 3.3 5.6
1982 10.8 52.0 8.0 30.3 4.0 9.7
1983 13.8 49.5 9.1 32.3 3.9 8.2
1984 15.6 53.3 6.2 28.6 4.2 10.9
1985 18.3 54.1 10.3 28.2 9.0 11.2
1986 29.4 55.0 16.7 32.5 9.0 12.2
1987 30.6 52.2 14.8 31.1 11.3 9.6
1988 26.5 50.3 14.4 30.3 10.3 11.3
1989 32.9 52.4 17.3 30.0 13.5 11.1
1990 25.0 53.7 16.6 30.3 14.0 12.4
1991 27.9 54.5 15.0 27.1 12.7 13.1
1992 30.6 54.6 17.2 30.4 14.8 15.5
1993 33.1 53.7 23.0 28.1 13.4 18.1
1994 33.6 52.1 24.2 32.1 14.4 18.9
1995 35.0 51.3 26.3 32.6 16.6 18.9
1996 27.7 53.5 20.3 33.6 15.8 18.5
  • Figure ECON 8c also shows that divorced and separated women are more likely to receive child support than are never-married women.
  • The proportion of never-married women receiving child support is similar for the AFDC and non-AFDC populations. The upward trend lines for both groups reflect the paternity establishment activities of the Child Support Enforcement Program, as very few paternities are established outside of the CSE system.
  • The proportion of divorced and separated women receiving child support but not AFDC payments has remained relatively constant.

Figure ECON 8d. Estimated Children Under 18 Born Outside of Marriage With Paternity Established, 1978 – 1997

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Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Statistics of the United States, annual and Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 46, No. 1, Supplement 2, September 11, 1997 and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.


  • The cumulative number of children needing paternity to be established has risen steadily over the last two decades due to growing numbers of children being born outside of marriage. The cumulative total of children born outside of marriage as of 1997 was about 17.5 million as shown in Figure ECON 8d. While the number and percentage of paternity establishments has increased, 45 percent of these children still did not have a legally identified father.

Table ECON 8d. Estimated Children under 18 Born Outside of Marriage with Paternity Established

(In thousands)

  1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1997

1 Non-marital births in 1997 are estimated based on the 12 months ending June 1997 as compared to the preceding 12 months.

Note: Total children under 18 years of age who were born outside of marriage is the cumulative total of nonmarital births less deaths; paternities established is the cumulative total of voluntary and C.S.E. paternity establishment as well as estimated births legitimated by marriage and adoption. An unknown number of children born outside of marriage are living with step-fathers who may have assumed paternal responsibility without legal adoption.

Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Statistics of the United States, annual and Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 46, No. 1, Supplement 2, September 11, 1997 and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Child Support Enforcement, Preliminary Child Support Enforcement FY 1997 Data Report, 1998 (and earlier years), Washington, DC.

Children Under 18 Born Outside of Marriage (est.) 6,212 6,932 7,781 8,674 9,680 10,816 12,175 13,743 15,326 16,816 17,501
Paternity Not Established 3,460 3,869 4,371 4,877 5,487 6,093 6,786 7,638 8,306 8,268 7,910
Paternity Established 2,752 3,063 3,410 3,797 4,193 4,722 5,389 6,105 7,020 8,548 9,591
    Percent of Children 44.3 44.2 43.8 43.8 43.3 43.7 44.3 44.4 45.8 50.8 54.8
Paternities Established for Nonmarital Births in a Year:
Nonmarital Births1 544 666 715 770 878 1,005 1,165 1,225 1,290 1,260 1,267
Paternities Established 111 144 173 219 245 307 393 512 676 1,043 1,282
    Percent of Births 20.4 21.6 24.2 28.4 27.9 30.5 33.7 41.8 52.5 82.7 101.2
  • As shown in Table ECON 8d, the number of paternities established each year as a percent of the number of children born outside of marriage each year has increased from 20 percent in 1978 to over 100 percent in 1997. This increasing rate of paternity establishment in the 1990s has increased the proportion of children with paternity established from about 44 percent in the period prior to 1994 to nearly 55 percent in 1997.
  • The proportion of all children under age 18 with paternities established has increased significantly in the past few years. This increase reflects the additional paternities now being established in the hospitals at the time of the birth of the child.
  • Reporting of in-hospital paternity establishments is voluntary and reflects reports from only 39 states, therefore the rate of increase in paternity establishments over the past few years may be underestimated.

Economic Security Risk Factor 9. Food Insecurity

Household food insecurity, including (at a severe level) direct hunger among children in the household, is related to general income poverty and is expected to affect children’s health, cognitive and social development, and general school success.

Figure ECON 9. Percentage of Households Classified as Food Insecure, 1995

Figure ECON 9. Percentage of Households Classified as Food Insecure, 1995

Source: Table ECON 9. See table for definition of food secure households.


  • A large majority (88 percent) of American households was food secure in the year ending April 1995. Food secure households show little or no evidence of concern about food supply or reduction in food intake.
  • About 11.9 million (of approximately 100 million) households experienced food insecurity - not being able to afford enough food - at some level during 1995. Most of the food insecure households were food insecure without hunger, meaning that although food insecurity was evident in their concerns and in adjustments to household food management, including reduced quality of diets, little or no reduction in food intake was reported.
  • About 4 percent of the 100 million households were classified as food insecure with hunger. Thus, one or more adult members of some 4.2 million households were estimated to have experienced reduced food intake and hunger as a result of financial constraints in the year ending April 1995.
  • About 800,000 households were classified as food insecure with severe hunger, meaning that children, as well as adults, experienced reduced food intake and hunger.

Table ECON 9. Percentage of Households Classified as Food Insecure, 1995

  Food Secure Food Insecure No Hunger Food Insecure Moderate Hunger Food Insecure Severe Hunger

Note: Persons of Hispanic ethnicity can be any race. Food secure households show little or no evidence of concern about food supply or reduction in food intake. Households classified as food insecure without hunger report food-related concerns and adjustments to household food management but report little or no reduction in food intake. Households classified as food insecure with moderate hunger report reduced food intake and hunger among adults, while households are defined as food insecure with severe hunger if they report reduced food intake and hunger among children as well as adults.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Analysis and Evaluation, Household Food Security in the United States in 1995.

All Households 88.1 7.8 3.3 0.8
Households with Children Under 6, by Race
White 82.6 13.1 3.6 0.6
Black 70.1 19.7 8.8 1.4
Hispanic 66.8 23.6 7.9 1.7
Other 79.4 14.1 4.0 2.6
Households with Children Under 18, by Race
White 84.6 11.1 3.6 0.7
Black 71.8 18.1 8.5 1.6
Hispanic 69.6 21.6 7.5 1.3
Other 81.1 12.6 4.7 1.6
Households with Elderly but no Children, by Race
White 95.3 3.2 1.3 0.2
Black 81.7 12.6 4.3 1.4
Hispanic 79.1 15.2 4.0 1.7
Other 87.7 7.8 3.6 0.9
Household Income-to-Poverty Ratio (all races and household types)
Under 0.50 58.4 24.6 12.1 4.9
Under 1.00 64.7 22.1 10.0 3.1
Under 1.30 68.1 20.0 9.3 2.6
Under 1.85 73.8 17.0 7.3 1.9
1.85 and over 95.8 2.8 1.2 0.2
Households with Children under 18 (all races)
Married-Couple Families 88.5 8.8 2.3 0.5
Female Head, No Spouse 64.7 22.9 10.3 2.0
Male Head, No Spouse 81.4 12.0 5.6 1.0
  • The prevalence of food insecurity is higher among non-white households than among white households. As shown in Table ECON 9, 10 percent of black and Hispanic households with children under six experience food insecurity with either moderate or severe hunger, compared with 4 percent of white households with children under six.
  • Households with an income-to-poverty ratio under 1.00 have a higher rate of food insecurity with moderate or severe hunger – 13 percent – than the 4 percent rate for the total population.
  • Female-headed households with children under 18 had a higher prevalence of food insecurity with moderate or severe hunger (12 percent) than male-headed families (7 percent) or married-couple families (3 percent).

Economic Security Risk Factor 10. Health Insurance

A lack of health insurance may be the precursor to future health problems and as such a risk factor of dependence.

Figure ECON 10. Percentage of Persons without Health Insurance by Age, 1996

Figure ECON 10. Percentage of Persons without Health Insurance by Age, 1996

Source: Table ECON 10.


  • Among all age categories, young adults age 18 to 24 were the most likely to be without health insurance in 1996 (29 percent).
  • Sixteen percent of the population was without health insurance in 1996 as shown in Table ECON 10.
  • Table ECON 10 also shows that among racial groups, a much larger percentage of Hispanics were without health insurance (34 percent) than non-Hispanic whites (12 percent) or non-Hispanic blacks (22 percent).
Table ECON 10. Percentage of Persons without Health Insurance by Age, 1996
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, March Current Population Survey, 1997.
All Persons 16
 
Non-HispanicWhite 12
Non-HispanicBlack 22
Hispanic 34
Other 21
 
Children 0 - 5 14
Children 6 - 8 14
Children 9 - 11 15
Children 12 - 14 16
Children 15 - 17 17
Total 0 - 17 15
 
Adults 18 - 24 29
Adults 25 - 34 22
Adults 35 - 44 16
Adults 45 - 54 14
Adults 55 - 64 14
 
Women Age 18 - 64 14
Men Age 18 - 64 18
   
Adults Age 65 and over 1

Economic Security Risk Factor 11. Percentage Residing in High-poverty Neighborhoods

High-poverty neighborhoods are often associated with relatively lower quality services (e.g., education, medical) that can have a negative effect on development and increase the risk of dependence.

Figure ECON 11. Percentage of Total Population Residing in High-Poverty Neighborhoods, 1990

Figure ECON 11. Percentage of Total Population Residing in High-Poverty Neighborhoods, 1990

Source: Table ECON 11.


  • Black and Hispanic individuals were disproportionately represented in high-poverty neighborhoods in 1990, as shown in Figure ECON 11. Whereas 14 percent of black individuals and 9 percent of Hispanic individuals resided in neighborhoods where over 40 percent of residents were poor, only 1 percent of white individuals lived in such neighborhoods.
  • The percentage of black individuals living in high-poverty neighborhoods has increased over time, from 11 percent in 1970 to 14 percent in 1990, as shown in Table ECON 11. This has contributed to an overall increase in the percentage of the population residing in high-poverty neighborhoods, from 2 percent in 1970 to 3 percent in 1990.

Table ECON 11. Percentage of Total Population Residing in High-Poverty Neighborhoods, Selected Years

  1970 1980 1990

Note: Neighborhoods are defined as census tracts and block-numbering areas. A highpoverty area is defined as having 40% or more of the residents' incomes below the official poverty line.

Source: Jargowsky, Paul. Poverty and Place: Ghetto, Barrios, and the American City. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997.

All persons 2.1 2.3 3.2
White 0.6 0.6 0.9
Black 11.2 12.1 14.3
Hispanic 8.2 7.3 9.0

Economic Security Risk Factor 12. Residential Mobility

Frequent changes of residence are disruptive events for children and may increase the risk of dependence.

Figure ECON 12. Percentage of Persons and Families with Children Who Moved in a Given One-Year Period

Figure ECON 12. Percentage of Persons and Families with Children Who Moved in a Given One-Year Period

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Geographical Mobility,” Current Populations Reports, Series P20, Nos. 463,
473, 481, 485, 497 and 510.


  • Single-parent families with children under age 18 were much more likely to move in a year than married-couple families in each of the periods shown above.
  • Residential mobility for all persons age 1 year and older remained essentially unchanged, dropping only one percentage point from 17 percent to 16 percent over the period as the economy recovered from the recession in the early 1990s.
  • Female-headed families with children were much more likely to move in a year than marriedcouple families with children, in each of the one-year periods shown.
  • Residential mobility decreased one percentage point every two years for children age 1 to 14 from 1987 - 1988 to 1993 - 1994.
  • Residential mobility for adults age 25 and above remained essentially unchanged, dropping only one percentage point over this period.

Table ECON 12. Number and Percentage of Individuals and Families Who Moved in a Given One-Year Period, Selected Years

  1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1995-96 1996-97

Note: Residential mobility measures the percent of individual over age 1 who changed houses between March of the first year and March of the next year. The mobility of married-couple and female single-parent families is the percent of householders age 15 to 54 with own children under 18 who changed houses.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Geographical Mobility,” Current Populations Reports, Series P20, Nos. 463, 473, 481, 485, 497 and 510.

  Number Moving (in millions)
Total Population 1 year and older 41.5 42.8 42.0 42.8 42.5 42.1
Persons 25 years and over 32.3 33.2 33.0 33.6 32.2 NA
All Families with Children            
    Age 1-4 years 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.9 3.7
    Age 5-9 years 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.8
    Age 10-14 years 2.5 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.9
Married Couples with Children            
    Under 18 years 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5
    Under 6 years 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.3
Single Parents with Children            
    Under 18 years 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.5 2.4 2.6
    Under 6 years 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.9
  Percent Moving
Total Population 1 year and older 17.0 17.3 16.8 16.7 16.3 16.0
Persons 25 years and over 16.7 17.0 16.7 16.7 15.8 NA
All Families with Children            
    Age 1-4 years 22.7 23.0 22.2 21.5 24.3 23.0
    Age 5-9 years 17.6 18.0 16.5 16.9 17.9 18.7
    Age 10-14 years 14.1 15.4 13.4 12.9 14.2 15.0
Married Couples with Children            
    Under 18 years 15.8 16.3 16.0 15.4 15.0 14.2
    Under 6 years 25.1 25.4 25.0 23.9 24.5 21.8
Single Parents with Children            
    Under 18 years 29.0 30.3 27.3 28.1 26.8 27.7
    Under 6 years 46.4 46.7 43.6 43.9 42.8 43.4

Economic Security Risk Factor 13. Adult Incarceration

This risk factor tracks trends in the extent to which adults are living apart from their children because they are incarcerated. An incarcerated parent leaves his orher family at increased risk of dependence.

Figure ECON 13. Estimated Number of Sentenced Male Prisoners Under State or Federal Jurisdiction per 100,000 Resident Population, 1981 to 1996

Figure ECON 13. Estimated Number of Sentenced Male Prisoners Under State or Federal Jurisdiction per 100,000 Resident Population, 1981 to 1996

Source: Table ECON 13.


  • From 1980 to 1996, the number of black men incarcerated per 100,000 population increased 185 percent, while the rate for white men increased 144 percent in the same period.
  • Table ECON 13 shows that the rate of incarceration for women, while still very small relative to men, rose 364 percent from 1980 to 1996, with white female incarceration increasing 400 percent and black female incarceration increasing 307 percent.
  • Table ECON 13 also shows that the rates for black men and black women were much higher than the rates for white men and white women in 1996.

Table ECON 13. Estimated Number of Sentenced Prisoners Under State or Federal Jurisdiction per 100,000 Resident Population

  Total Men and Womena All Mena White Men Black Men All Womena White Women Black Women
1980 139 275 188 1111 11 6 45
1981 154 304 186 1217 12 7 50
1982 171 337 206 1345 14 8 57
1983 179 354 217 1412 15 9 58
1984 188 370 228 1459 16 9 63
1985 202 397 246 1559 17 10 68
1986 217 426 261 1895 20 12 77
1987 231 453 277 1800 22 13 82
1988 247 482 290 1951 24 15 91
1989 276 535 317 2200 29 17 115
1990 297 564 338 2234 31 19 117
1991 313 595 352 2368 33 19 129
1992 332 631 373 2499 35 20 136
1993 359 685 402 2718 40 23 155
1994 389 739 432 2923 45 26 169
1995 411 781 449 3095 47 27 176
1996 427 809 458 3162 51 30 183

Notes: Sentenced prisoners are those with a sentence of more than 1 year. Rates are based on U.S. resident population on July 1 of each year. Rates for 1990--1996 may differ from those previously published because the number of prisoners under jurisdiction have been revised and the resident population by sex and race have been adjusted for the Census undercount.

a Includes Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and other racial groups.

Sources: Correctional Populations in the United States, 1994, 1995, 1996; U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ-160091, June 1996; NCJ-163916, May 1997; NCJ-170013, November 1998.

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 1. Labor Force Attachment

This risk factor focuses exclusively on the participation of an adult in the labor market, without regard to whether means-tested assistance was received concurrently. Measuring labor force attachment reflects a critical aspect of the risk of dependence.

Figure WORK 1. Percentage of All Individuals in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

Figure WORK 1. Percentage of All Individuals in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

Source: Table WORK 1a.


  • In 1994, most individuals, regardless of race, lived in families with at least one person participating in the labor force on a full-time basis.
  • Non-Hispanic blacks were more likely than Hispanics or non-Hispanic whites to live in families with no one in the labor force.
  • As shown in Table WORK 1a, younger children were slightly more likely than older children to live in families with no one in the labor force.
  • Table WORK 1a shows that working-age women were more likely than working-age men to live in families with no one in the labor force, and less likely to live in families with at least one full-time labor force participant.
  • The percentage of individuals in families with no one in the labor force increased slightly, from 16 percent in 1987 to 17 percent in 1994, as shown in Table WORK 1b.

Table WORK 1a. Percentage of All Individuals in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1994

  No One in Labor Force At Least One Person in Labor Force, No Full-Time Participants At Least One Full-Time Labor Force Participant

Note: Full-time labor force participants are defined as those who usually work 35 or more hours per week.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1993 panel.

All Persons 16.7 9.1 74.3
Racial Categories      
Non-Hispanic White 16.2 8.2 75.6
Non-Hispanic Black 21.7 12.3 66.0
Hispanic 16.6 10.7 72.7
Age Categories      
Children Age 0 - 5 12.3 8.9 78.9
Children Age 6 - 10 11.6 9.3 79.1
Children Age 11 - 15 9.6 9.4 81.0
Women Age 16 - 64 19.2 9.4 71.4
Men Age 16 - 64 14.1 8.6 77.3

Table WORK 1b. Percentage of All Individuals in Families with Labor Force Participants, 1987 to 1994

  1987 1988 1990 1991 1993 1994

Note: Full-time labor force participants are defined as those who usually work 35 or more hours per week.

Source: Unpublished data from the SIPP, 1987, 1990, and 1993 panels.

No One in the Labor Force 15.7 15.5 15.8 16.2 16.3 16.7
At Least One Person in Labor Force, no Full-Time Participants 8.3 7.7 7.8 8.6 9.5 9.1
At Least One Full-Time Labor Force Participant 76.0 76.8 76.4 75.2 74.2 74.3

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 2. Employment Among the Low-skilled

This risk factor tracks trends in the percentage of men and women with 12 years of schooling or less who are engaged in paid employment. These trends illustrate a key risk of dependence.

Figure WORK 2. Percent of All Persons Ages 18 to 65 with no more than a High School Education who were Employed, 1969 to 1998

Figure WORK 2. Percent of All Persons Ages 18 to 65 with no more than a High School Education who were Employed, 1969 to 1998

Source: Table WORK 2.


  • The percentage of low-skilled men who were employed dropped significantly between 1969 and 1984, with the largest decline among black men. During this time period, the percentage of high school-educated black men who were employed dropped 20 percentage points, from 90 percent to 70 percent; for low-skilled white men, employment rates dropped 8 percentage points over this time period, from 93 percent to 85 percent.
  • Since 1984, employment levels for high school-educated white men and Hispanic men have leveled off, hovering close to 85 percent. Employment levels for low-skilled black men have fluctuated over the past fifteen years, rising as high as 76 percent in 1991, and falling as low as 69 percent in 1995.
  • In 1998, only 72 percent of black men with no more than a high school education were working compared to 85 percent of similarly educated white and Hispanic men.
  • The employment rates for low-skilled women have steadily increased since the early 1970s. Since 1973, employment levels for white and black women have improved by about 20 percentage points. The improvement for Hispanic women, however, has been much less pronounced.

Table WORK 2. Percentage of All Persons Ages 18 to 65 with No More Than a High School Education Who Were Employed, 1969 to 1998

  Men Women
Year White Black Hispanic White Black Hispanic

Note: White and Black includes Hispanic for all years. Hispanic was not available until 1975.

Source: ASPE tabulations of March Current Population Surveys.

1969 92.8 89.9 NA 55.8 65.8 NA
1970 92.1 89.2 NA 56.1 64.9 NA
1972 90.9 86.1 NA 55.2 59.4 NA
1973 84.1 76.8 NA 45.6 47.4 NA
1976 88.2 78.8 86.2 58.3 57.2 49.7
1978 88.3 78.6 89.8 59.8 57.4 51.4
1980 88.6 78.5 89.4 62.3 58.7 55.0
1981 88.0 75.3 87.4 62.3 57.4 53.0
1982 87.3 74.4 87.9 62.3 57.7 52.1
1983 85.4 71.3 85.4 60.7 56.2 50.6
1984 84.8 69.9 84.6 61.4 55.3 50.8
1985 86.1 71.6 83.9 62.9 58.4 53.1
1986 85.7 74.5 84.1 63.7 59.4 52.4
1987 86.3 74.2 86.7 64.4 60.3 53.0
1988 86.6 73.9 85.6 65.8 59.9 54.0
1989 86.5 74.1 87.8 66.4 61.3 54.6
1990 86.6 74.0 86.2 67.2 60.9 55.8
1991 87.4 75.6 85.4 66.8 60.4 55.0
1992 86.2 73.9 85.0 66.5 60.7 54.6
1993 85.5 71.4 83.7 65.9 57.8 53.3
1994 84.4 71.1 83.5 66.1 59.9 52.2
1995 84.7 69.3 83.2 66.6 60.7 53.3
1996 85.5 70.2 83.3 67.0 59.7 53.9
1997 85.6 70.0 84.0 67.7 63.6 55.4
1998 85.3 71.8 85.0 67.7 66.1 56.9

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 3. Earnings of Low-skilled Workers

The economic condition of the low-skill labor market is key to the ability of young adult men and women to support families without receiving means-tested assistance. This measure tracks trends in the earnings of low-skilled workers.

Figure WORK 3. Mean Weekly Wages of Men Working Full-Time, Full-Year with No More Than a High School Education (1995 Dollars), 1970 to 1994

Figure WORK 3. Mean Weekly Wages of Men Working Full-Time, Full-Year with No More Than a High School Education (1995 Dollars), 1970 to 1994

Source: Table WORK 3.


  • Mean weekly wages for full-time work by high school-educated men have decreased in real terms over the past quarter of a century. In 1970 the mean weekly wage for low-skilled men working full-time was $593 (in 1995 dollars); the comparable wage in 1994 was $523, representing a decrease of 12 percent.
  • A large gap exists between mean weekly wages for high school-educated white and black men, although it has been narrowing over time. In 1970, the mean weekly wage for low-skilled black men working full-time was $432 (in 1995 dollars), or 70 percent of the $615 average for white men. In 1994, full-time working black men with no more than a high school education received 82 percent of the weekly wages of white men, or a mean wage of $446, compared to a mean wage for white men of $539. The narrowing of this gap is predominantly a result of the declining value of white men’s mean wages.

Table WORK 3. Mean Weekly Wages of Men Working Full-Time, Full-Year with No More Than a High School Education (1995 Dollars), 1970 to 1994

  1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994

Note: Full-time, full-year workers work at least 48 weeks per year and 35 hours per week. These data have been weighted to create an average for all men with no more than a high school diploma using population numbers from U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20. The population weights were calculated for 1970, 1980, and 1990 and the Other year weights were calculated using linear extrapolation.

Source: Blank, R., It Takes a Nation, 1997.

All Men $593 $580 $584 $555 $531 $523
White Men 615 597 603 572 545 539
Black Men 432 460 448 440 442 446

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 4. ADULT/CHILD Disability

Health conditions that limit parents’ ability to work are important predictors of family economic problems and future dependence.

Figure WORK 4. Percentage of the Total Population Reporting a Disability, 1994

Figure WORK 4. Percentage of the Total Population Reporting a Disability, 1994

Source: Table WORK 4.


  • In 1994, adults were more likely than school-age children to have a functional disability, and school-age children were in turn more likely to have a functional disability than younger children.
  • As shown in Table WORK 4, the percentage of non-Hispanic blacks who reported a functional disability was larger than the percentages for non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics.
  • Table WORK 4 also shows that while adults were more likely in 1994 to report a functional disability than children, a higher percentage of children than adults were actually recipients of disability program benefits.
Table WORK 4. Percentage of the Total Population Reporting a Disability, 1994

Note: Functional disability only includes those disabilities expected to last at least 12 months. Functional disabilities were defined as either: (1) limitations in or inability to perform a variety of physical activities (i.e. walking, lifting, reaching); (2) serious sensory impairments (i.e. inability to read newsprint even with glasses or contact lenses); (3) serious symptoms of mental illness (i.e. frequent depression or anxiety; frequent confusion, disorientation, or difficulty remembering) which has seriously interfered with life for the last year; (4) use of selected assistive devices (i.e. wheelchairs, scooter, walkers); (5) developmental delays for children identified by a physician (i.e. physical, learning); (6) for children under 5, inability to perform age-appropriate functions (i.e. sitting up, walking); and, (7) long-term care needs. Work disability is defined as limitations in or the inability to work as a result of a physical, mental or emotional health condition. Perceived disability is a new disability measure based on the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and includes individuals who were perceived by themselves or others as having a disability. Disability program recipients include persons covered by Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI), Special Education Services, Early Intervention Services, and/or disability pensions.

Source: Unpublished data from the 1994 National Health Interview Survey on Disability, Phase I; 1994 NHIS, and 1994 Family Resources Supplement.

Functional Disability
All Persons 18.3
Racial Categories  
Non-Hispanic White 8.7
Non-Hispanic Black 11.0
Hispanic 7.7
Age Categories  
Children Age 0 - 5 7.2
Children Age 6 - 17 9.5
Adults Age 18 - 64 16.2
Functional, Work, Perceived or Program Disability
Age 0 - 17  
Functional Disability 8.7
Work Disability NA
Perceived Disability 2.8
Disability Program Recipient 6.7
Age 18 - 64  
Functional Disability 16.2
Work Disability 10.7
Perceived Disability 7.0
Disability Program Recipient 5.7

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 5. Adult Alcohol and Substance Abuse

Adult alcohol and substance abuse is a risk factor for dependence.

Figure WORK 5. Percentage of Adults who used Cocaine, Marijana, or Alcohol, 1997

Figure WORK 5. Percentage of Adults who used Cocaine, Marijana, or Alcohol, 1997

Source: Table WORK 5.


  • In 1997, young adults (age 18 to 25) were more likely than other adults to report cocaine use, marijuana use, or alcohol abuse in the past month. One-eighth (13 percent) of adults 18 to 25 reported using marijuana in the past month, compared with 6 percent of adults 26 to 34 and 3 percent of adults 35 and older. The age differences were less pronounced for cocaine use and alcohol abuse.
  • The percentages of persons reporting binge alcohol use were significantly larger than the percentages for all other reported behaviors, across all age groups and for all years with reports on alcohol use, as shown in Table WORK 5. In 1997, for example, about one-fourth of adults under 35 (28 percent for adults 18 to 25, and 23 percent for adults 26 to 34) reported drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion at least once within the past month.
  • As shown in Table WORK 5, marijuana use was more prevalent than heavy alcohol use among adults ages 18 to 25 in the most recent years (1996 and 1997), as had been the case in earlier years (1985 and 1988). In the intervening years, however, heavy alcohol use was more prevalent than marijuana use among this age group. The recent trend is a result of both increasing marijuana use and decreasing heavy alcohol use in the 1990s, a reversal of the prior trend.

Table WORK 5. Percentage of Adults Who Used Cocaine, Marijuana, or Alcohol, 1979 to 1997

  1979 1985 1988 1991 1994 1996 1997

Note: Cocaine and marijuana use is defined as use during the past month. “Binge" Alcohol Use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day in the past 30 days. "Occasion" means at the same time or within a couple hours of each other. Heavy Alcohol Use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days; all Heavy Alcohol Users are also "Binge" Alcohol Users. Data for 1997 are preliminary.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Preliminary Estimates, 1998.

Cocaine
Age 18 - 25 9.9 8.1 4.8 2.2 1.2 2.0 1.2
Age 26 - 34 3.0 6.3 2.8 1.9 1.3 1.5 0.9
Age 35 and Above 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5
Marijuana
Age 18 - 25 35.6 21.7 15.3 12.9 12.1 13.2 12.8
Age 26 - 34 19.7 19.0 12.3 7.7 6.9 6.3 6.0
Age 35 and Above 2.9 2.6 1.8 2.6 2.3 2.0 2.6
Binge Alcohol Use
Age 18 - 25 NA 34.4 28.2 31.2 33.6 32.0 28.0
Age 26 - 34 NA 27.5 19.7 21.5 24.0 22.8 23.1
Age 35 and Above NA 12.9 9.7 10.1 11.8 11.3 11.7
Heavy Alcohol Use
Age 18 - 25 NA 13.8 12.0 15.2 13.2 12.9 11.1
Age 26 - 34 NA 11.5 7.1 7.9 8.0 7.1 7.5
Age 35 and Above NA 5.2 4.0 4.4 4.8 3.8 4.0

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 6. Children's Health Conditions

Health limitations may limit the labor force participation of parents and therefore illustrate a risk of dependence.

Table WORK 6. Selected Chronic Health Conditions per 1,000 Children Ages 0 to 17, 1984 to 1994

  1984 1987 1990 1992 1993 1994
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth: 1997. Table HC 2.4.
Respiratory Conditions
Chronic Bronchitis 50 62 53 54 59 55
Chronic Sinusitis 47 58 57 69 80 65
Asthma 43 53 58 63 72 69
Chronic Diseases of Tonsils or Adenoids 34 30 23 28 26 23
Impairments
Deformity or Orthopedic Impairment 35 36 29 33 29 28
Speech Impairment 16 19 14 21 20 21
Hearing Impairment 24 16 21 15 17 18
Visual Impairment 9 10 9 10 7 9
Other Conditions
Heart Disease 23 22 19 19 20 18
Anemia 11 8 10 11 9 12
Epilepsy 7 4 4 3 5 5
  • Respiratory conditions were the most prevalent chronic health conditions experienced by children ages 0 to 17 throughout the time period, especially asthma. In 1994, 69 children per thousand had asthma, up from 43 children per thousand in 1984. The prevalence of chronic sinusitis also increased, from 47 children per thousand in 1984, to 65 children per thousand by 1994.
  • In 1994, 28 children per thousand had a deformity or orthopedic impairment, down from 35 children per thousand in 1984.

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 7. Child CARE Expenditures

Proportion of total family income spent on child care in families with employed mothers is an important dimension of the risk of dependency.

Figure WORK 7. Percentage of Monthly Income Spent on Child Care for Preschoolers by Families with Employed Mothers, 1993

Figure WORK 7. Percentage of Monthly Income Spent on Child Care for Preschoolers by Families with Employed Mothers, 1993

Source: Table WORK 7.


  • Poor families with employed mothers of preschoolers spent a much larger percentage of their monthly family income on child care in 1993 relative to non-poor families with employed mothers (18 percent compared to 7 percent).
  • As shown in Table WORK 7, employed single mothers (no husband present) spent a larger percentage of their monthly family income on child care expenses than did employed married mothers.
  • Table WORK 7 shows that employed mothers who received assistance from AFDC, WIC or Food Stamps spent a larger percentage of their total monthly family income on child care relative to non-recipients (13 percent compared to 7 percent). Among recipients of these programs, AFDC recipients spent the largest percentage of their monthly family income on child care.

Table WORK 7. Percentage of Monthly Income Spent on Child Care for Preschoolers by Families with Employed Mothers, 1993

Table WORK 7. Percentage of Monthly Income Spent on Child Care for Preschoolers by
Families with Employed Mothers, 1993
All Families 7.6
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 7.4
Non-Hispanic Black 8.5
Hispanic 9.0
Marital Status
Married, Husband Present 7.0
Widowed, Separated, Divorced 12.3
Never Married 12.5
Poverty Status
Poor 17.7
Non-Poor 7.3
Program Participation
Recipient 12.8
    AFDC 17.1
    WIC 12.3
Food Stamps 14.6
Non-Recipient 7.3

Note: Non-recipients are those in families not receiving AFDC, general assistance, Food Stamps or WIC.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, "What Does It Cost to Mind Our Preschoolers," Current Population Reports, Series P70-52, 1995.

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 8. Educational Attainment

Completed schooling is one measure of job-skill level. Individuals with no more than a high school education have the lowest amount of human capital and are at the greatest risk of becoming poor despite their work effort. This risk factor tracks the trend in educational attainment.

Figure WORK 8. Percentage of Adults Ages 25 and Over by Level of Educational Attainment, 1970 to 1997

Figure WORK 8. Percentage of Adults Ages 25 and Over by Level of Educational Attainment, 1970 to 1997

Source: Table WORK 8.


  • Since 1970 there has been a marked decline in the percentage of the population with less than a high school education, dropping from 45 percent in 1970 to 18 percent in 1997.
  • The percentage of the population receiving a high school education but with no subsequent college was 34 percent in 1970, rose somewhat in the 1970s and 1980s, and then fell back to 34 percent by 1997.
  • Since 1970 there has been a consistent increase in the percentage of the population with some college (one to three years), rising from 11 to 25 percent.
  • The percentage of the population completing four or more years of college more than doubled from 1970 to 1997, rising steadily from 11 to 24 percent.

Table WORK 8. Percentage of Adults Ages 25 and Over by Level of Educational Attainment, 1970 to 1997

  1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1997

Note: Completing the GED is not considered completing high school within this table. Beginning with data for 1992, a new question results in different categories than for earlier years. Data shown as 'High School, 4 years' is now collected by the category 'High School Graduate.' Data shown as 'College 1 to 3 years,' is now collected by 'Some College;' and two 'Associate Degree' categories. Data shown as 'College 4 years or more,' is now collected by the categories, 'Bachelor's Degree; Master's Degree;' 'Doctorate Degree;' 'Professional Degree.'

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Educational Attainment in the United States" Current Population Reports, Series P20, Nos. 476 (1994) and 505 (1998).

Less than High School 45 37 31 26 22 22 21 20 18
Finished High School, No College 34 36 37 38 38 39 36 35 34
One to Three Years of College 10 12 15 16 18 18 22 23 25
Four or More Years of College 11 14 17 19 21 21 21 22 24

Employment and Work-related Risk Factor 9. High-school Dropout Rates

Although some teens who drop out of high school eventually graduate or obtain GEDS, dropout rates are reliable risk factors associated with teen problem behavior and future economic problems.

Figure WORK 9. Percentage of Students Enrolled in Grades 10 to 12 in the Previous Year Who Were Not Enrolled and Had Not Graduated in the Survey Year, 1975 to 1996

Figure WORK 9. Percentage of Students Enrolled in Grades 10 to 12 in the Previous Year Who Were Not Enrolled and Had Not Graduated in the Survey Year, 1975 to 1996

Source: Table WORK 9.


  • After declining steadily during the 1980s and the 1990s, dropout rates for teens in grades 10 to 12 began rising, from a total dropout rate of 4 percent in 1990 to a rate of 6 percent in 1995. The overall rate dropped back to 5 percent in 1996.
  • Dropout rates are highest for Hispanic teens. In 1996, the dropout rate was 9 percent for Hispanic teens, compared to 7 percent for black teens and 4 percent for white teens.

Table WORK 9. Percentage of Students Enrolled in Grades 10 to 12 in the Previous Year Who Were Not Enrolled and Had Not Graduated in the Survey Year, 1975 to 1996

  1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth: 1998. Table EA 1.4.
Total 5.8 6.1 5.2 4.0 4.0 4.4 4.5 5.3 5.7 5.0
White 5.0 5.2 4.3 3.3 3.2 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.1
Black 8.7 8.2 7.8 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.8 6.6 6.4 6.7
Hispanic 10.9 11.7 9.8 7.9 7.3 8.2 6.7 10.0 12.3 9.0

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 1. Percentage of Births That are to Unmarried Women Within Age Groups

This risk factor shows the percentage of all births, within each age group, that are to unmarried women.

Figure TEEN 1. Percentage of Births That Are to Unmarried Women, by Age Group, 1940 to 1997

Figure TEEN 1. Percentage of Births That Are to Unmarried Women, by Age Group, 1940 to 1997

Source: Table TEEN 1.


  • The percentage of children born outside of marriage to women of all ages has increased over the past half-century, from 4 percent in 1940 to 32 percent in 1997. This increase reflects changes in several factors: the rate at which unmarried women have children, the rate at which married women have children, and the rate at which women marry.
  • The percentage of children born outside of marriage is especially high for teen women, as shown in Figure TEEN 1. Among teens, over three-quarters (78 percent) of births were outside of marriage in 1997. The comparable percentage for all women is 32 percent.
  • Figure TEEN 1 shows that the percentage of unmarried births to all women has leveled off since 1994. Growth in the percentage of unmarried births to teen mothers has also slowed since 1994, but it is still rising (from 76 percent in 1994 to 78 percent in 1997).
  • The trend toward leveling off has occurred for both black and white women (see Table C-1 in Appendix C for non-marital birth data by age and race).

Table TEEN 1. Percentage of Births That Are to Unmarried Women by Age Group, 1940 to 1997

Year Under 15 15-17 Years 18-19 Years All Teens All Women

Notes: Births to unmarried women in the United States for 1940 - 1979 are estimated from data for registration areas in which marital status of the mother was reported; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, births to unmarried women in the United States are based on data from states reporting marital status directly and data from non-reporting states for which marital status was inferred from other information on the birth certificate; see sources below. Data for 1997 are preliminary.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Births to Unmarried Mothers: United States, 1980 - 1992"; Vital and Health Statistics, Series 21, No. 53, 1995; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1995," Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 45, No. 11, Supplement, 1997; Ventura, S.J., Anderson, R.N., Martin, J.A, and Smith, B.L., "Births and Deaths: Preliminary Data for 1997," National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 47, No. 4, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 1998.

1940 64.5 NA NA 14 3.8
1941 64.1 NA NA 14.2 3.8
1942 64.5 NA NA 13.2 3.4
1943 64.2 NA NA 13.4 3.3
1944 64.5 NA NA 15.7 3.8
1945 70 NA NA 18.2 4.3
1946 66.4 NA NA 15.7 3.8
1947 65.1 NA NA 13 3.6
1948 61.4 20.8 8.5 12.7 3.7
1949 61.8 21.1 8.6 12.9 3.7
1950 63.7 22.6 9.4 13.9 4
1951 62.9 21.8 9.1 13.5 3.9
1952 63.6 22.8 9.2 14 3.9
1953 64 22.3 9.6 14.1 4.1
1954 64.4 23.2 10.1 14.7 4.4
1955 66.3 23.2 10.3 14.9 4.5
1956 66.1 23 10 14.6 4.6
1957 66.1 23.1 9.8 14.5 4.7
1958 66.2 23.3 10.3 14.9 5
1959 67.9 24.2 10.6 15.4 5.2
1960 67.8 24 10.7 15.4 5.3
1961 69.7 25.3 11.3 16.2 5.6
1962 69.5 26.7 11.3 16.4 5.9
1963 71.1 28.2 12.5 18 6.3
1964 74.2 29.9 13.5 19.7 6.8
1965 78.5 32.8 15.3 21.6 7.7
1966 76.3 35.3 16.1 22.6 8.4
1967 80.3 37.7 18 25 9
1968 81 40.4 20.1 27.6 9.7
1969 79.3 41.3 21.1 28.7 10
1970 80.8 43 22.4 30.5 10.7
1971 82.1 44.5 23.2 31.8 11.3
1972 81.9 45.9 24.7 33.8 12.4
1973 84.8 46.7 25.6 35 13
1974 84.6 48.3 27 36.4 13.2
1975 87 51.4 29.8 39.3 14.2
1976 86.4 54 31.6 41.2 14.8
1977 88.2 56.6 34.4 43.8 15.5
1978 87.3 57.5 36.2 44.9 16.3
1979 88.8 60 38.1 46.9 17.1
1980 88.7 61.5 39.8 48.3 18.4
1981 89.2 63.3 41.4 49.9 18.9
1982 89.2 65 43 51.4 19.4
1983 90.4 67.5 45.7 54.1 20.3
1984 91.1 69.2 48.1 56.3 21
1985 91.8 70.9 50.7 58.7 22
1986 92.5 73.3 53.6 61.5 23.4
1987 92.9 75.8 56 64 24.5
1988 93.6 77.1 58.5 65.9 25.7
1989 92.4 77.7 60.4 67.2 27.1
1990 91.6 77.7 61.3 67.6 28
1991 91.3 78.7 63.2 69.3 29.5
1992 91.3 79.2 64.6 70.5 30.1
1993 91.3 79.9 66.1 71.8 31
1994 94.5 84.1 70 75.9 32.6
1995 93.5 83.7 69.8 75.6 32.2
1996 93.8 84.4 70.8 76.3 32.4
1997 95.7 86.6 72.3 78.1 32.4

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 2. Percentage of All Births That are to Unmarried Teens

This risk factor shows the percentage of total births that are to unmarried teen mothers each year.

Figure TEEN 2. Percentage of all Births That Are to Unmarried Teens Ages 15-19, 1940 to 1997

Figure TEEN 2. Percentage of all Births That Are to Unmarried Teens Ages 15-19, 1940 to 1997

Source: Table TEEN 2.


  • In contrast to Figure TEEN 1, which showed births to unmarried teens as a percentage of all teen births, Figure TEEN 2 shows births to unmarried teens as a percentage of births to all women, teens or adults, married or unmarried. Births to unmarried teens as a percentage of all births have risen, from 2 percent in 1940 to 10 percent in 1997. This percentage is affected by several factors: the age distribution of the population, the marriage rate among teens, the birth rate among unmarried teens, and the birth rate among all other women.
  • The percentage of all births that were to unmarried teens leveled off over the last four years for births to both white and black women.
  • Between 1970 and 1994, the percentage of all births that were to unmarried teens had been increasing steadily among white women.
  • Among births to black women, the percentage of all births that were to unmarried teens varied greatly during the same period, peaking in 1975, then falling until the early 1990s. The sharp increase in the percentage for black women in the early 1970s reflects a rise in non-marital teen births concurrent with a decline in total black births.

Table TEEN 2. Percentage of All Births That Are to Unmarried Teens Ages 15 to 19, 1940 to 1997

Year All Races White Black

Notes: Births to unmarried women in the United States for 1940 - 1979 are estimated from data for registration areas in which marital status of the the mother was reported; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, births to unmarried women in the United States are based on data from states reporting marital status directly and data from non-reporting states for which marital status was inferred from other information on the birth certificate; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, data are tabulated by the race of the mother. Prior to 1980, data are tabulated by the race of the child; see sources below. Data for 1997 are preliminary.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Births to Unmarried Mothers: United States, 1980 - 1992," Vital and Health Statistics, Series 21, No. 53, 1995; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1995," Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 45, No. 11, Supplement, 1997; Ventura, S.J., Anderson, R.N., Martin, J.A., Smith, B.L., "Births and Deaths: Preliminary Data for 1997," National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 47, No. 4, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, 1998.

1940 1.7 0.8 NA
1941 1.7 0.7 NA
1942 1.5 0.7 NA
1943 1.5 0.6 NA
1944 1.6 0.8 NA
1945 1.8 0.8 NA
1946 1.5 0.7 NA
1947 1.4 0.7 NA
1948 1.5 0.7 NA
1949 1.5 0.6 NA
1950 1.6 0.6 NA
1951 1.5 0.6 NA
1952 1.5 0.6 NA
1953 1.6 0.6 NA
1954 1.7 0.7 NA
1955 1.7 0.7 NA
1956 1.7 0.7 NA
1957 1.8 0.7 NA
1958 1.9 0.8 NA
1959 2 0.9 NA
1960 2 0.9 NA
1961 2.2 1 NA
1962 2.3 1.1 NA
1963 2.5 1.2 NA
1964 2.8 1.3 NA
1965 3.3 1.6 NA
1966 3.8 1.9 NA
1967 4.1 2.1 NA
1968 4.5 2.3 NA
1969 4.7 2.4 17.5
1970 5.1 2.6 18.8
1971 5.5 2.6 20.3
1972 6.2 3 22.6
1973 6.5 3.2 23.4
1974 6.7 3.3 23.9
1975 7.1 3.7 24.2
1976 7.1 3.8 23.8
1977 7.2 4 23.4
1978 7.2 4 22.7
1979 7.2 4.1 22.5
1980 7.3 4.4 22.2
1981 7.1 4.5 21.5
1982 7.1 4.5 21.2
1983 7.2 4.6 21.2
1984 7.1 4.6 20.7
1985 7.2 4.8 20.3
1986 7.5 5.1 20.1
1987 7.7 5.3 20
1988 8 5.6 20.3
1989 8.3 5.9 18.6
1990 8.4 6.1 18.3
1991 8.7 6.4 18.1
1992 8.7 6.5 20.2
1993 8.9 6.8 20.2
1994 9.7 7.5 21.1
1995 9.6 7.6 21.1
1996 9.6 7.7 20.9
1997 9.8 7.9 20.7

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 3. Unmarried Teen Birth Rates Within Age Groups

This indicator tracks trends in the number of births per 1,000 unmarried teen women within specific age groups.

Figure TEEN 3a. Births per 1,000 Unmarried Teens Ages 15 to 17, 1966 to 1996

Figure TEEN 3a. Births per 1,000 Unmarried Teens Ages 15 to 17, 1966 to 1996

Figure TEEN 3b. Births per 1,000 Unmarried Teens Ages 18 to 19, 1966 to 1996

 src=

Source: Table TEEN 3.


  • The birth rate per 1,000 single teens fell between 1994 and 1996 for both black and white teens in the 15 to 17 and 18 to 19 age groups, with the largest relative decline among black teens age 15 to 17.
  • Prior to 1994, birth rates among single white teens in both age groups rose steadily for nearly three decades.
  • Among single black teens in both age groups, birth rates varied greatly over the period, peaking in 1991, and falling thereafter. Rates for both age groups were lower in 1996 than in 1970.

Table TEEN 3. Births per 1,000 Unmarried Teen Women Within Age Groups, 1966 to 1996

  Ages 15-17 Ages 18-19
Year Total White Black Total White Black

Note: Rates are per 1,000 unmarried women in specified group; rates prior to 1980 are estimated. Births to unmarried women in the United States for 1940 - 1979 are estimated from data for registration areas in which marital status of the mother was reported; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, births to unmarried women in the United States are based on data from states reporting marital status directly and data from non-reporting states for which marital status was inferred from other information on the birth certificate; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, data are tabulated by the race of the mother. Prior to 1980, data are tabulated by the race of the child; see sources below. Rates for 1981-1989 have been revised and differ, therefore, from rates published in Vital Statistics in the United States, Vol. 1, Natality, for 1991 and earlier years.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Births to Unmarried Mothers: United States, 1980 - 1992," Vital and Health Statistics, Series 21, No. 53, 1995 and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996," Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 46, No. 11, Supplement, 1998.

1966 13.1 5.4 NA 25.6 14.1 NA
1967 13.8 5.6 NA 27.6 15.3 NA
1968 14.7 6.2 NA 29.6 16.6 NA
1969 15.2 6.6 72.0 30.8 16.6 128.4
1970 17.1 7.5 77.9 32.9 17.6 136.4
1971 17.5 7.4 80.7 31.7 15.8 135.2
1972 18.5 8.0 82.8 30.9 15.1 128.2
1973 18.7 8.4 81.2 30.4 14.9 120.5
1974 18.8 8.8 78.6 31.2 15.3 122.2
1975 19.3 9.6 76.8 32.5 16.5 123.8
1976 19.0 9.7 73.5 32.1 16.9 117.9
1977 19.8 10.5 73.0 34.6 18.7 121.7
1978 19.1 10.3 68.8 35.1 19.3 119.6
1979 19.9 10.8 71.0 37.2 21.0 123.3
1980 20.6 12.0 68.8 39.0 24.1 118.2
1981 20.9 12.6 65.9 39.0 24.6 114.2
1982 21.5 13.1 66.3 39.6 25.3 112.7
1983 22.0 13.6 66.8 40.7 26.4 111.9
1984 21.9 13.7 66.5 42.5 27.9 113.6
1985 22.4 14.5 66.8 45.9 31.2 117.9
1986 22.8 14.9 67.0 48.0 33.5 121.1
1987 24.5 16.2 69.9 48.9 34.5 123.0
1988 26.4 17.6 73.5 51.5 36.8 130.5
1989 28.7 19.3 78.9 56.0 40.2 140.9
1990 29.6 20.4 78.8 60.7 44.9 143.7
1991 30.9 21.8 80.4 65.7 49.6 148.7
1992 30.4 21.6 78.0 67.3 51.5 147.8
1993 30.6 22.1 76.8 66.9 52.4 141.6
1994 32.0 24.1 75.1 70.1 56.4 141.6
1995 30.5 23.6 68.6 67.6 55.4 131.2
1996 29.0 22.7 64.0 65.9 54.1 129.2

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 4. Early Sexual Intercourse

Early sexual intercourse is a strong predictor of subsequent childbearing at an early age, which increases the risk of dependence.

Figure TEEN 4. Percentage of High School Students Grades 9 to 12 Who Reported Ever Having Sexual Intercourse, 1997

Figure TEEN 4. Percentage of High School Students Grades 9 to 12 Who Reported Ever Having Sexual Intercourse, 1997

Source: Table TEEN 4.


  • Between 1995 and 1997, the percentage of high school students reporting ever had sexual intercourse dropped by 5 percentage points, from 53 percent to 48 percent, as shown in Table TEEN 4.
  • The percentage of high school students who report ever having had sexual intercourse increases with each grade, particularly among female students. In 1997, the rates rose from 34 percent for female 9th grade students to 62 percent for female 12th grade students, as depicted in Figure TEEN 4.
  • Female students in grade 9 were less likely than their male counterparts to report ever having had sexual intercourse (34 percent compared to 42 percent). By grades 10 through 12, however, rates reported by female students had risen slightly above rates reported by male students.
  • As shown in Table TEEN 4, in 1997, four-fifths (80 percent) of non-Hispanic black male students reported ever having had sexual intercourse, a percentage that is 14 percentage points above the 66 percent reported by non-Hispanic black female students. Among Hispanic students, the rate for males (58 percent) is 12 percentage points higher than the rate for females (46 percent). Among non-Hispanic white students, however, nearly equal percentages of males and females report ever having had sexual intercourse – 43 percent for males and 44 percent for females.

Table TEEN 4. Percentage of High School Students Grades 9 to 12 Who Reported Ever Having Sexual Intercourse, 1995 and 1997

  1995 1997
  Total Male Female Total Male Female
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, Vol. 45 No. SS-4 and Vol. 47, No. SS-3, Table 26.
Total 53.1 54.0 52.1 48.4 48.9 47.7
Grade
9 36.9 40.6 32.1 38.0 41.8 34.0
10 48.0 50.0 46.0 42.5 41.7 43.5
11 58.6 57.1 60.2 49.7 49.3 50.3
12 66.4 67.1 66.0 60.9 60.1 61.9
Racial Categories
Non-Hispanic White 48.9 48.9 49.0 43.6 43.3 44.0
Non-Hispanic Black 73.4 81.0 67.0 72.7 80.3 65.6
Hispanic 57.6 62.0 53.3 52.2 57.7 45.7

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 5. Never-married Family Status

This measure complements the measures of nonmarital births by showing the “stock” of children living with never-married women. Children living with never-married women are at increased risk of dependence.

Figure TEEN 5. Percentage of all Children Living in Families Headed by Never- Married Women, 1983 to 1997

Figure TEEN 5. Percentage of all Children Living in Families Headed by Never- Married Women, 1983 to 1997

Source: Table TEEN 5.


  • The percentage of children living with never-married women increased from 5 percent in 1983 to 9 percent in 1997. This increase reflects growth across all racial categories, as shown in Figure TEEN 5.
  • A very small percentage (2 percent) of white children were living in families headed by never-married women in 1983. Although this percentage increased by 150 percent over the time period, the percentage of white children in families headed by never-married women was still relatively small (5 percent) in 1997.
  • The percentage of black children living in families headed by never-married women was much higher than the percentages for other groups throughout the time period. In 1997, for example, 31 percent of black children, compared to 12 percent of Hispanic children and 5 percent of white children, lived in families headed by never-married women.

Table TEEN 5. Percentage of all Children Living in Families Headed by Never-Married Women, 1983 to 1997

Year All White Black Hispanic

Note: Data are for all children under 18 who are not family heads.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Marital Status and Living Arrangements," Current Population Reports, Series P20-399, 418, 433, 450, 468, 484, 491, 496, and 505, various years.

1983 5.2 1.9 23.5 6.5
1984 5.2 1.9 23.9 6.5
1986 5.9 2.4 26.6 7.2
1988 7.0 3.0 30.4 9.2
1990 7.0 3.0 29.6 8.7
1992 8.4 3.9 33.1 10.3
1994 9.0 4.5 32.9 12.0
1995 8.7 4.3 32.3 10.8
1996 9.0 4.6 31.2 11.3
1997 9.3 5.0 31.4 11.8

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 6. Detached Youth

Teens who are neither in school nor working are likely to be at significant risk of dependence.

Figure TEEN 6. Percentage of Youths Ages 16 to 19 Who Were Neither in School Nor Working by Race, 1985 to 1996

Figure TEEN 6. Percentage of Youths Ages 16 to 19 Who Were Neither in School Nor Working by Race, 1985 to 1996

Source: Table TEEN 6.


  • Black and Hispanic youths ages 16 to 19 are more likely than white youths to be neither in school nor working. In 1996, for example, Hispanic youths were twice as likely as white youths to be out of school and work, 16 percent compared to 8 percent.
  • In 1975, 12 percent of all youths ages 16 to 19 were neither in school nor working, as shown in Table TEEN 6. This percentage has gradually declined since then, reaching 9percent in 1996.
  • The percentage of female youths who are neither in school nor working in 1996 was higher (11 percent) than the comparable percentage (8 percent) of male youths.

Table TEEN 6. Percentage of Youths Ages 16 to 19 Who Were Neither in School Nor Working, 1975 to 1996

  1975 1985 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth: 1998. Table ES 3.6.
All Youths 12 11 10 10 9 10 9 9
Male   9 8 8 8 8 8 8
Female   13 12 12 11 11 11 11
Racial Categories
White   10 9 9 8 9 8 8
Black   18 15 17 15 14 15 14
Hispanic   17 17 16 16 17 16 16

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 7. Teen Alcohol and Substance Abuse

Teen alcohol and substance abuse are important examples of teen problem behavior and may increase the risk of dependence.

Figure TEEN 7. Percentage of Teens Ages 12 to 17 Who Used Cocaine, Marijuana, or Alcohol, 1979 to 1997

Figure TEEN 7. Percentage of Teens Ages 12 to 17 Who Used Cocaine, Marijuana, or Alcohol, 1979 to 1997


  • Source: Table TEEN 7.
  • Although both binge and heavy alcohol use declined among teens ages 12 to 17 throughout most of the period, the percentage of teens abusing alcohol rose slightly in 1997.
  • Marijuana use among teens declined fairly continuously through the 1980s but has risen fairly sharply since, from a minimum of 4 percent in 1991 to 9 percent in 1997. It is still below the 14 percent level occurring in 1979.
  • As shown in Table TEEN 7, cocaine use more than tripled between 1994 and 1997, and in 1997 was at its highest level (1 percent) since 1988.

Table TEEN 7. Percentage of Teens Ages 12 to 17 Who Used Cocaine, Marijuana, or Alcohol, 1979 to 1997

  1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1996 1997

Note: Cocaine and marijuana use is defined as use during the past month. “Binge" Alcohol Use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least one day in the past 30 days. "Occasion" means at the same time or within a couple hours of each other. Heavy Alcohol Use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days; all Heavy Alcohol Users are also "Binge" Alcohol Users.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Preliminary Estimates, 1998.

Cocaine 1.5 1.9 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.6 1.0
Marijuana 14.2 9.9 10.2 5.4 3.6 6.0 7.1 9.4
Binge Alcohol Use NA NA 21.9 15.1 13.2 8.3 7.2 8.3
Heavy Alcohol Use NA NA 9.5 4.0 6.0 2.5 2.9 3.1

Teen Behavior Risk Factor 8. Teen Violent Crime Arrests

Teen crime data indicate serious adolescent problem behavior and may predict future dependence.

Figure TEEN 8. Arrest Rates for Violent Crime for Youths Ages 10 to 17, per 100,000 Youths, 1980 to 1996

Figure TEEN 8. Arrest Rates for Violent Crime for Youths Ages 10 to 17, per 100,000 Youths, 1980 to 1996

Source: Table TEEN 8.


  • Arrest rates for violent crimes for all youths peaked in 1994 but have gradually been decreasing since that time.
  • Historically, youths become more likely to be arrested for violent crimes as they grow older; 17 year-olds, for example, were more than twelve times as likely to be arrested than ten to twelve year-olds in 1996.
  • Table TEEN 8 also shows that, as expected, violent crime arrest rates were consistently much higher among males than among females for all ages over the time period.

TEEN 8. Arrest Rates for Violent Crime for Youths Ages 10 to 17, per 100,000 Youths, 1980 to 1996

  1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Note: Violent crime is the sum of murder, forcible rape, robbery and aggravated assault. Rates refer to the number of arrests made per 100,000 inhabitants belonging to the prescribed age group.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Trends in the Well-Being of America’s Children and Youth: 1998. Table SD 1.6.

Total
Ages 10-17 334.1 303.0 428.6 461.5 482.9 505.4 527.8 511.6 464.7
Ages 10-12 46.4 56.4 70.6 79.0 85.5 86.1 91.8 89.1 81.4
Ages 13-14 261.4 251.9 368.0 405.4 444.9 461.4 494.2 461.7 409.4
Age 15 503.8 446.1 669.7 732.7 770.0 828.2 857.5 809.6 731.2
Age 16 638.5 565.9 876.2 935.2 994.4 1,028.6 1,055.6 1,021.0 905.6
Age 17 739.5 651.1 982.7 1,066.5 1,056.9 1,110.2 1,113.6 1,109.4 1,022.1
Male
Ages 10-17 587.6 529.8 740.5 797.9 825.7 857.7 888.6 855.7 772.3
Ages 10-12 81.6 99.5 119.8 135.1 145.2 114.8 153.7 147.4 133.8
Ages 13-14 445.6 426.1 603.9 668.5 725.4 744.8 793.1 737.2 649.1
Age 15 875.4 771.7 1,144.1 1,250.6 1,291.9 1,386.5 1,421.7 1,329.9 1,195.2
Age 16 1,132.6 997.3 1,534.9 1,637.3 1,730.7 1,776.5 1,809.1 1,733.5 1,530.8
Age 17 1,325.8 1,166.1 1,758.1 1,909.7 1,877.6 1,956.8 1,950.2 1,933.6 1,760.4
Female
Ages 10-17 70.2 66.9 104.0 111.4 126.0 138.8 152.2 153.4 144.6
Ages 10-12 3.4 4.0 7.5 8.1 9.2 9.7 10.5 10.7 10.0
Ages 13-14 47.4 52.7 77.0 82.8 95.9 107.9 121.5 117.0 107.5
Age 15 63.4 55.3 88.5 93.5 112.4 118.7 130.6 134.7 123.3
Age 16 129.6 114.6 187.4 208.9 219.8 249.9 265.4 268.0 257.1
Age 17 131.0 114.1 183.9 189.0 210.6 224.5 246.8 250.3 247.5

Appendices

Appendix A. Program Data

The Welfare Indicators Act specifies that the annual welfare indicators reports shall include analyses of families and individuals receiving assistance under three means-tested benefit programs: the program of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act (replaced with the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996), the Food Stamp Program under the Food Stamp Act of 1997, and the Supplemental Security Income program under title XVI of the Social Security Act. This chapter includes information on the three programs, derived primarily from administrative data reported by state and federal agencies, instead of the national survey data presented in previous chapters. Discussion of each of the three individual programs is preceded, however, by an overview of several recent studies of caseload changes in the AFDC, Food Stamp, and SSI programs.

Recent Studies of Caseload Change

Historically, caseload size has served as the preeminent indicator of welfare dependence. Given the anticipated growth in state-level program variations since enactment of the PRWORA, several recent studies have looked at caseload changes among states.

A May 1997 report by the Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) attempted to determine the cause of the 20 percent decline in number of individuals receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children from January 1993 and January 1997 by examining the impacts of three potential factors. The factors considered were economic growth, federal waivers which allowed states to experiment with innovative ways to reduce welfare dependence, and other policies affecting work-related incentives including expansions of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and increased state and federal spending on child care. The CEA attributed over 40 percent of the caseload decline to falling unemployment rates associated with economic growth. Their analysis also found that almost one-third of the decline resulted from statewide welfare reform waivers in six broad categories: termination time limits, work-requirement time limits, reduced work program exemptions, increased work program sanctions, caps on benefits to families that have additional children while on welfare, and increased earnings disregards. Other factors, which might include policies such as the EITC expansions, accounted for the remainder of the caseload decline.

Another study, done by The Lewin Group, sought to improve understanding of state-level factors behind historical growth in AFDC caseloads by analyzing the relationship between state AFDC caseload growth and the strength and structure of the state economy, demographic trends, and changes in the structure of AFDC and other public assistance programs. Separately, Rebecca Blank investigated the determinants of aggregate public assistance (principally the AFDC program) caseload changes over time, by investigating the role of macroeconomic forces, public policies and demographic change.

Methodological differences notwithstanding, all three efforts concluded that the effects of the economy on welfare caseload changes were substantial. Unemployment rates, wage levels and job growth were all determined to be important factors. These are critical findings for states as they prepare for the implications of economic recessions and recoveries under the TANF block grant. Welfare caseload reductions caused by economic factors are also the most likely to be reflected in commensurate movement along the continuum from dependence to self-sufficiency at the family level.

Several other factors were also found to influence the size of welfare caseloads, including program parameters and operating rules. Benefit levels and eligibility criteria are significant determinants of caseload levels. In recent years, many states received waivers of federal requirements in order to experiment with policies that varied widely in scope. Many policies were designed to promote work, both through incentives for recipients (such as increased earnings disregards and expanded child care) and measures designed to strengthen enforcement of work requirements. Policies that reduced the number of exemptions from work requirements, increased sanctions or required work after a limited time period in exchange for benefits were adopted in a number of states. Interestingly, some of the estimated waiver effects on caseloads occurred even before the waiver was approved or implemented.

The increased options available to state agencies in implementing the TANF program under the new welfare law highlight the role that policy forces play in effecting caseload changes. State responses to their increased flexibility to define eligibility are still evolving. It is clear, however, that these policy decisions will determine even how “cases” are defined for data reporting purposes.

Concern about an increase of one million persons participating in the Food Stamp Program between the second quarters of fiscal years 1989 and 1990, a time with no major changes in the program or the economy, prompted Congress to ask the U.S. Department of Agriculture to conduct a study detailing the specific factors and trends responsible. While the program growth was widespread, the size and timing of the participation increases varied considerably by state, with three states accounting for nearly half the increase.

The study concluded that no one factor could explain the increase, and that the importance of the three factors most responsible varied significantly from state to state. In some states, the expansions in Medicaid eligibility for pregnant women and children appeared to be a major contributor, although no clear regional pattern was evident. Increased unemployment was a key contributor in the northeast and north central states, while the changes in immigration laws, particularly the legalization of undocumented aliens (by the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986) were important in California and other southern and western states.

Aside from specific factors attributed to discrete periods of dramatic caseload changes, a number of factors are associated with changes in Food Stamp Program participation. Economic factors such as increases in unemployment, increases in the number of “working poor,” increases in food prices, and changes in the distribution of income are important, as are demographic changes such as an increase in the number of female-headed households. Other factors include changes in the number of eligible households caused by immigration legislation, changes in the Food Stamp Program itself, and changes in other public assistance programs that bring more people into the public assistance system.

Similarly, several factors have contributed to the growth of the Supplemental Security Income program. According to the General Accounting Office (GAO), three groups accounted for nearly 90 percent of the SSI program’s growth since 1991: adults with mental impairments, children and noncitizens. The GAO attributes caseload growth to several factors including: expansion in disability eligibility (particularly for mentally impaired adults and for children), increased outreach, immigration growth, and transfers from state programs.

The remainder of this chapter presents brief descriptions of the AFDC/TANF, Food Stamp and SSI programs and highlights some of the recent legislative changes that will affect program participation and expenditures over time. (Effects from some of the Food Stamp Program changes, in particular, under PRWORA are already reflected in the data.) National caseload and expenditure trend information on each of the three programs is included, as well as state-by-state trend tables on each program and information on the characteristics of participants in each program.

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)

Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) was established by the Social Security Act of 1935 as a grant program to enable states to provide cash welfare payments for needy children who have been deprived of parental support or care because their father or mother is absent from the home, incapacitated, deceased, or unemployed. All 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands operated an AFDC program. States defined “need,” set their own benefit levels, established (within federal limitations) income and resource limits, and administered the program or supervised its administration. States were entitled to unlimited federal funds for reimbursement of benefit payments, at “matching” rates which were inversely related to state per capita income. States were required to provide aid to all persons who were in classes eligible under federal law and whose income and resources were within state-set limits.

AFDC enrollments and benefit outlays have generally increased in times of economic recession and declined in times of economic growth. Both caseloads and outlays rose to all-time high levels in fiscal year 1994. That year a monthly average of 14.2 million persons (9.6 million children) in 5 million families received benefits totaling $22.8 billion. AFDC participation then fell to 12.6 million persons in fiscal year 1996.

Recent Legislative Changes. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 (PRWORA) eliminated the AFDC cash welfare and other related programs (AFDC administration, the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training (JOBS) program and the Emergency Assistance program) and created in their place a cash welfare block grant called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). Its purpose is to increase state flexibility in providing assistance to needy families so that children can be cared for at home; end the dependence of needy parents on government benefits by promoting job preparation, work and marriage; prevent and reduce the incidence of out-of-wedlock pregnancies; and encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families. The implementation date for the TANF block grant was July 1, 1997, although states could, and most did, begin their block grant programs sooner.

Spending through the TANF block grant is capped and funded at $16.4 billion per year, slightly above fiscal year 1995 federal expenditures for the four component programs. Each year between 1996 and 2002, the basic block grant provides each state with the highest of recent annual funding levels it received for the four constituent programs to operate welfare programs that stress work instead of government dependence. To receive each year’s full TANF block grant, a state must spend in the previous year on behalf of TANF-eligible families a sum equal to 75 percent of state funds used in fiscal year 1994 on the replaced programs (its “historic” level of welfare expenditures). If a state fails to meet work participation rates, its required “maintenance of effort” spending rises to 80 percent. To assist in recessions or other emergencies, states that maintain 100 percent of fiscal year 1994 AFDC-related spending are eligible to receive matching grants from a $2 billion contingency fund.

The new law gives states wide latitude in developing innovative programs that will get families off welfare and into jobs. States set TANF eligibility standards and benefit levels. TANF block grant funds are guaranteed payments to states, but can be reduced if states fail to meet specified requirements such as meeting work participation requirements and ensuring that funds are spent on children and families. In addition, states are prohibited from using federal cash welfare block grant funds to: (1) provide cash or noncash TANF benefits to families in which an adult has already received assistance through the block grant for 5 years with an exemption of 20 percent of the caseload, (2) pay TANF benefits to noncitizens (including legal immigrants) arriving after the date of enactment (August 22, 1996) during their first 5 years in the United States1, and (3) pay benefits to parents who fail to participate in work or a state-designed welfare-to-work program after 24 months (or shorter at state option) of receiving cash welfare. The new law also gives states wide flexibility to combat out-of-wedlock births, which are related to increased welfare use and long-term dependence. They may deny or offer aid to two-parent families or to any group; however, if states offer TANF to unmarried teen parents they must require them to live at home or in another adult-supervised setting and attend school in order to be eligible for payments.

AFDC/TANF Program Data. The following tables and figures present a variety of data about the AFDC program:

  • Tables A-1 through A-5 and Figures A-1 through A-3 present national caseload and expenditure trend data on the AFDC program. As noted above, the transition from AFDC to TANF began in some states as early as October 1996 and was completed by July 1, 1997. As a result, fiscal year 1997 data reflect some TANF program experience, although it is much too early to draw any conclusions about TANF trends;
  • Figure A-4 and Table A-6 present some demographic characteristics of the AFDC caseload; and
  • Tables A-7 through A-13 present some state-by-state trend data on the AFDC program, plus provisional 1997 data that reflect the phasing out of AFDC and the phasing in of TANF.

Table A-1 presents information on the average monthly number of AFDC families and recipients for each fiscal year since 1970 through Fiscal Year 1997. The U.S. caseload peaked at record highs in 1994, with an average 14.2 million recipients in over 5 million families receiving AFDC benefits each month. Since then the caseload has declined about 22 percent -- by a little over 1 million families and 3.2 million recipients. Preliminary data for the first several months of 1998 suggest that the caseload has continued to decline during the first year of TANF implementation falling as low as 8.4 million recipients in 3.0 million families in June 1998, as shown in Table A-10. (Because data on the demographic characteristics of the TANF caseload are not available, most of the other tables in this Appendix present data through June 1997). As shown on Table A-2, the average monthly benefit per recipient has continued the steady decline (in 1997 dollars) which began in 1988; recipients received an average 23 percent less in AFDC/TANF benefits (in 1997 dollars) in 1997 than in 1988.

Table A-1. Trends in AFDC/ TANF Enrollments, 1962 – 1997 1

  Average Monthly Number (In thousands) Children as Average
Total Families 2 Unemployed Total Total of Children
Total Families Parent

1 The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 repealed the AFDC program as of July 1, 1997

2

3 Based on data for the first 9 months of the fiscal year.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, (Available online at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/).

1962   3,593 49   2,778 77.3  
1963   3,834 54   2,896 75.5  
1964   4,059 60   3,043 75.0  
1965   4,323 69   3,242 75.0  
1966   4,472 62   3,369 75.3  
1967   4,718 58   3,561 75.5  
1968   5,348 67   4,011 75.0  
1969   6,147 66   4,591 74.7  
1970   7,429 78   5,494 74.0  
1971   9,556 143   6,963 72.9  
1972   10,632 134   7,698 72.4  
1973   11,038 120   7,965 72.2  
1974   10,845 95   7,824 72.1  
1975   11,067 101   7,928 71.6  
1976   11,339 135   8,156 71.9  
1977   11,108 149   7,818 70.4  
1978   10,663 128   7,475 70.1  
1979   10,311 114   7,193 69.8  
1980   10,597 141   7,320 69.1  
1981   11,160 209   7,615 68.2  
1982   10,431 232   6,975 66.9  
1983   10,659 272   7,051 66.1  
1984   10,866 287   7,153 65.8  
1985   10,813 261   7,165 66.3  
1986   10,995 254   7,300 66.4  
1987   11,065 236   7,381 66.7  
1988   10,920 210   7,325 67.1  
1989   10,935 193   7,370 67.4  
1990   11,460 204   7,755 67.7  
1991   12,595 268   8,515 67.6  
1992   13,625 322   9,225 67.7  
1993   14,143 359   9,539 67.6  
1994   14,226 363   9,590 67.6  
1995   13,659 335   9,275 67.9  
1996   12,644 301   8,673 68.6  
1997   11,015 275 1,158 3 3 70.6 2.0 3

Figure A-1. AFDC/TANF Families Receiving Income Assistance 1

Figure A-1. AFDC/TANF Families Receiving Income Assistance

1 The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 repealed the AFDC program as of July 1, 1997 and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program.

Note: Shaded areas are periods of recession. Effective July 1, 1981 families with incomes greater than 150 percent of a State's standard of need were no longer eligible for income assistance; this income cut-off was raised to 185 percent in 1984. Last data point plotted is June 1997 for U-P and Basic Families and March 1998 for Total Families.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation.


Figure A-2. Average Number of Children per Family For Families with Related Children Under 18 by Living Arrangement, 1960 – 1996

(In millions)

Figure A-2. Average Number of Children per Family For Families with Related Children Under 18 by Living Arrangement, 1960 – 1996

Note: For 1960-74 the average number of children per married-couple family is estimated based on all male-headed families of which during this period they comprised 98-99 percent.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance, Quarterly Public Assistance Statistics, 1992-1993 and earlier years; U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1996," Current Population Reports, Series P60-198 and earlier years.


Table A-2. Trends in AFDC/TANF Average Monthly Payments, 1962 – 1997 1

Fiscal Year Monthly Benefit per Recipient Average Number of Persons per Family Monthly Benefit per Family
(not reduced by Child Support)
Weighted Average2 Monthly Benefit
(per 3-person Family)
Current Dollars 1997 Dollars Current Dollars 1997 Dollars Current Dollars 1997 Dollars

1 The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 repealed the AFDC program as of July 1, 1997 and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program.

2 The maximum benefit for a 3-person family in each state is weighted by that state’s share of total AFDC families.

3 Estimated based on the weighted average benefit for a 4-person family.

Note: AFDC benefit amounts have not been reduced by child support collections. Constant dollar adjustments to 1997 level were made using a CPI-U-X1 fiscal year price index.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance, Quarterly Public Assistance Statistics, 1992 & 1993 and earlier years along with unpublished data.

1962 $31 $152 3.9 $121 $593 NA NA
1963 31 151 4.0 126 608 NA NA
1964 32 152 4.1 131 626 NA NA
1965 34 158 4.2 140 659 NA NA
1966 35 161 4.2 146 670 NA NA
1967 36 162 4.1 150 670 NA NA
1968 40 171 4.1 162 698 NA NA
1969 43 179 4.0 173 717 1863 774
1970 46 181 3.9 178 705 1943 769
1971 48 181 3.8 180 683 2013 761
1972 51 188 3.6 187 684 2053 751
1973 53 186 3.5 187 656 2133 747
1974 57 183 3.4 194 627 2293 740
1975 63 186 3.3 209 616 243 717
1976 71 195 3.2 226 622 257 708
1977 78 200 3.1 241 619 271 696
1978 83 200 3.0 249 603 284 685
1979 87 193 2.9 257 570 301 667
1980 94 187 2.9 274 545 320 638
1981 96 174 2.9 277 501 326 590
1982 103 174 2.9 300 508 331 560
1983 106 172 2.9 311 503 336 544
1984 110 171 2.9 321 499 352 546
1985 112 168 2.9 329 493 369 553
1986 116 169 2.9 339 495 383 560
1987 123 175 2.9 359 511 393 559
1988 127 174 2.9 370 506 404 552
1989 131 171 2.9 381 497 412 538
1990 135 167 2.9 389 483 421 523
1991 135 159 2.9 388 458 425 502
1992 136 156 2.9 389 446 419 480
1993 131 146 2.8 373 415 414 461
1994 134 145 2.8 376 408 420 451
1995 134 142 2.8 377 397 418 441
1996 135 138 2.8 374 384 422 433
1997 134 134 2.8 373 373 420 420

Figure A-3. Average Monthly AFDC Benefit By Family and Recipient in Current and Constant Dollars

Figure A-3. Average Monthly AFDC Benefit By Family and Recipient in Current and Constant Dollars

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance, Quarterly Public Assistance Statistics, 1992 & 1993, and unpublished data.


Table A-3. Total, Federal, and State AFDC/TANF Expenditures, 1970 – 1997 1

[In millions of current and 1997 dollars]

Fiscal Year Federal Share
(Current Dollars)
State Share
(Current Dollars)
Total
(Current Dollars)
Total
(Constant 97 Dollars 4)
Benefits Administrative Benefits Administrative Benefits Administra- tive Benefits Administrative

1 The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 repealed the AFDC program as of July 1, 1997 and replaced it with the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program. Spending categories not entirely equivalent.

2 Includes expenditures for services.

3 Administrative expenditures only.

4 Constant dollar adjustments to 1997 level were made using a CPI-U-X1 fiscal year price index.

5 Provisional data, subject to change.

Note: Benefits do not include emergency assistance payments and have not been reduced by child support collections. Foster care payments are included from 1971 to 1980. Beginning in fiscal year 1984, the cost of certifying AFDC households for food stamps is shown in the food stamp program’s appropriation under the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Administrative costs include: Child Care administration, Work Program, ADP, FAMIS, Fraud Control, SAVE and other State and local administrative expenditures.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Program Systems.

1970 $2,187 $572 2 $1,895 $309 $4,082 $881 2 $16,146 $3,485
1971 3,008 271 2,469 254 5,477 525 20,740 1,988
1972 3,612 240 3 2,942 241 6,554 481 3 23,966 NA
1973 3,865 313 3,138 296 7,003 610 24,595 2,142
1974 4,071 379 3,300 362 7,371 740 23,844 2,394
1975 4,625 552 3,787 529 8,412 1,082 24,801 3,190
1976 5,258 541 4,418 527 9,676 1,069 26,705 2,950
1977 5,626 595 4,762 583 10,388 1,177 26,688 3,024
1978 5,724 631 4,898 617 10,621 1,248 25,599 3,008
1979 5,825 683 4,954 668 10,779 1,350 23,890 2,992
1980 6,448 750 5,508 729 11,956 1,479 23,823 2,947
1981 6,928 835 5,917 814 12,845 1,648 23,273 2,986
1982 6,922 878 5,934 878 12,857 1,756 21,764 2,973
1983 7,332 915 6,275 915 13,607 1,830 22,030 2,963
1984 7,707 876 6,664 822 14,371 1,698 22,318 2,637
1985 7,817 890 6,763 889 14,580 1,779 21,856 2,667
1986 8,239 993 6,996 967 15,235 1,960 22,274 2,866
1987 8,914 1,081 7,409 1,052 16,323 2,133 23,207 3,033
1988 9,125 1,194 7,538 1,159 16,663 2,353 22,759 3,214
1989 9,433 1,211 7,807 1,206 17,240 2,417 22,471 3,150
1990 10,149 1,358 8,390 1,303 18,539 2,661 23,019 3,304
1991 11,165 1,373 9,191 1,300 20,356 2,673 24,060 3,159
1992 12,258 1,459 9,993 1,378 22,250 2,837 25,524 3,255
1993 12,270 1,518 10,016 1,438 22,286 2,956 24,817 3,292
1994 12,512 1,680 10,285 1,621 22,797 3,301 24,731 3,581
1995 12,019 1,770 10,014 1,751 22,032 3,521 23,254 3,717
1996 11,065 1,633 9,346 1,633 20,411 3,266 20,962 3,354
1997 5 9,746 1,286 7,902 1,128 17,648 3,234 17,648 3,234

Table A-4. Federal and State AFDC Benefit Payments Under the Single Parent and Unemployed Parent Programs, Fiscal Years 1970 to 1996

[In millions of current and 1996 dollars]

Fiscal Year (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Single Parent1 Unemployed Parent Child Support Collections2 Net Benefits3 (1) + (2) minus (3) Net Benefits
(1996 dollars)4

1 Includes payments to two-parent families where one adult is incapacitated.

2 Total AFDC collections (including collections on behalf of foster care children) less payments to AFDC families.

3 Net AFDC benefits--Gross benefits less those reimbursed by child support collections.

4 Constant dollar adjustments to 1996 level were made using a CPI-U-XI fiscal year price index.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Financial Management.

1970 3,851 231 0 4,082 15,722
1971 4,993 412 0 5,405 19,882
1972 5,972 422 0 6,394 22,715
1973 6,459 414 0 6,873 22,504
1974 6,881 324 0 7,205 22,740
1975 7,791 362 0 8,153 23,363
1976 8,825 525 245 9,105 24,469
1977 9,420 617 395 9,642 24,121
1978 9,624 565 459 9,730 22,870
1979 9,865 522 584 9,803 21,156
1980 10,847 693 593 10,947 21,186
1981 11,769 1,075 659 12,185 21,472
1982 11,601 1,256 771 12,086 19,879
1983 12,136 1,471 865 12,742 20,128
1984 12,759 1,612 983 13,388 20,264
1985 13,024 1,556 901 13,679 19,967
1986 13,672 1,563 951 14,284 20,335
1987 14,807 1,516 1,070 15,252 21,115
1988 15,243 1,420 1,196 15,466 20,569
1989 15,889 1,350 1,286 15,952 20,246
1990 17,059 1,480 1,416 17,123 20,702
1991 18,529 1,827 1,603 18,753 21,583
1992 20,130 2,121 1,824 20,426 22,816
1993 19,988 2,298 1,971 20,315 22,028
1994 20,393 2,404 2,093 20,704 21,871
1995 19,820 2,212 2,215 19,817 20,367
1996 18,438 1,973 2,374 18,037 18,037

Table A-5. Number of AFDC/TANF Recipients, and Recipients as a Percentage of Various Population Groups, 1970 – 1997

Calender Year Total AFDC Recipients in the States & DC
(in thousands)
AFDC Child Recipients in the States & DC
(in thousands)
AFDC Recipients as a Percent of Total Population1 AFDC Recipients as a Percent of Poverty Population2 AFDC Recipients as a Percent of Pretransfer Poverty Population3 AFDC Child Recipients as a Percent of Total Child Population1 AFDC Child Recipients as a Percent of Children in Poverty2

1 Population numbers used as denominators are resident population. See Current Population Reports, Series P25-1106.

2 For poverty population data see Current Population Reports, Series P60-201.

3 The pretransfer poverty population used as denominator is the number of all persons in families with related children under 18 years of age whose income (cash income plus social insurance plus Social Security but before taxes and means-tested transfers) falls below the appropriate poverty threshold. See Appendix J, Table 20, 1992 Green Book; data for subsequent years are unpublished Congressional Budget Office tabulations.

4 Average for January through June of 1997.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance and U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1996," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and earlier years, (Available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html).

1970 8,303 6,104 4.1 32.7 NA 8.8 58.5
1971 10,043 7,303 4.9 39.3 NA 10.5 69.2
1972 10,736 7,766 5.1 43.9 NA 11.2 75.5
1973 10,738 7,763 5.1 46.7 NA 11.3 80.5
1974 10,621 7,637 5.0 45.4 NA 11.3 75.2
1975 11,131 7,928 5.2 43.0 NA 11.8 71.4
1976 11,098 7,850 5.1 44.4 NA 11.8 76.4
1977 10,856 7,632 4.9 43.9 NA 11.7 74.2
1978 10,387 7,270 4.7 42.4 NA 11.2 73.2
1979 10,140 7,057 4.5 38.9 53.1 11.0 68.0
1980 10,599 7,295 4.7 36.2 49.2 11.4 63.2
1981 10,893 7,397 4.7 34.2 47.1 11.7 59.2
1982 10,161 6,767 4.4 29.5 40.6 10.8 49.6
1983 10,569 6,967 4.5 29.9 41.9 11.1 50.1
1984 10,644 7,017 4.5 31.6 43.6 11.2 52.3
1985 10,672 7,073 4.5 32.3 45.0 11.3 54.4
1986 10,851 7,206 4.5 33.5 46.6 11.5 56.0
1987 10,842 7,240 4.5 33.6 46.7 11.5 55.9
1988 10,728 7,201 4.4 33.8 47.7 11.4 57.8
1989 10,799 7,286 4.4 34.3 47.6 11.5 57.9
1990 11,497 7,781 4.6 34.2 47.1 12.1 57.9
1991 12,728 8,601 5.0 35.6 49.1 13.2 60.0
1992 13,571 9,183 5.3 35.7 50.8 13.9 60.1
1993 14,007 9,439 5.4 35.7 48.5 14.1 60.2
1994 13,976 9,440 5.4 36.7 50.0 13.9 61.8
1995 13,240 9,009 5.0 36.3 50.1 13.1 61.5
1996 12,150 8,355 4.6 33.3 46.4 12.1 57.8
1997 10,236 7,340 4 3.8 28.8 NA 10.6 52.0

Figure A-4. Characteristics of AFDC Families

Figure A-4. Characteristics of AFDC Families

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of AFDC Recipients: Fiscal Year 1996 and earlier years, (Current data available online at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ofa/content.htm).


Table A-6. AFDC Characteristics, 1969 – 1996

  May 1969 May 1975 March 1979 Fiscal year1
1983 1988 1990 1992 1994 1995 19965

1 Percentages are based on the average monthly caseload during the year. Hawaii and the territories are not included in 1983. Data after 1986 include the territories and Hawaii.

2 Calculated on the basis of total number of families.

3 For years after 1983, data are for adult female recipients.

4 States began collecting child support directly in 1975, removing one source of non-AFDC income.

5 Preliminary data.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Family Assistance, Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of AFDC Recipients: Fiscal Year 1996 and earlier years, (Current data available online at http://www.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/ofa/content.htm).

Average Family Size (persons) 4.0 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8
Number of Child Recipients (percent of AFDC Cases):
    One 26.6 37.9 42.3 43.4 42.5 42.2 42.5 42.6 43.2 43.9
    Two 23.0 26.0 28.1 29.8 30.2 30.3 30.2 30.0 30.4 29.9
    Three 17.7 16.1 15.6 15.2 15.8 15.8 15.5 15.6 15.5 15.0
    Four or More 32.5 20.0 13.9 10.1 9.9 9.9 10.1 9.6 9.6 9.2
    Unknown NA NA NA 1.5 1.7 1.4 0.7 1.5 1.3 1.3
Basis for Eligibility (percent children):
    Parents Present:
        Incapacitated 11.72 7.7 5.3 3.4 3.7 3.6 4.1 3.9 4.3 4.3
        Unemployed 4.62 3.7 4.1 8.7 6.5 6.4 8.2 8.7 7.8 8.3
    Parents Absent:                    
        Death 5.52 3.7 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.6
        Divorce or Separation 43.32 48.3 44.7 38.5 34.6 32.9 30.0 26.5 25.4 24.3
        No Marriage Tie 27.92 31.0 37.8 44.3 51.9 54.0 53.1 55.7 57.4 58.6
        Other Reason 3.52 4.0 5.9 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.6 2.5 2.4
        Unknown NA NA NA 1.7 NA NA 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.6
Mother's Employment Status (percent mothers):3
    Full-Time Job 8.2 10.4 8.7 1.5 2.2 2.5 2.2 3.2 3.7 4.7
    Part-Time Job 6.3 5.7 5.4 3.4 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.5 5.1 5.4
Presence of Income (percent families):
    With Earnings NA 14.6 12.8 5.7 8.4 8.2 7.4 8.7 9.5 11.1
    No Non-AFDC Income 56.0 71.1 80.64 86.84 79.64 80.14 78.94 78.0 77.3 76.0
Median Months on AFDC
    Since Most Recent Opening 23.0 31.0 29.0 26.0 26.3 23.0 22.5 21.5 23.2 23.6
Proportion of Households (percent families):
    Living in Public Housing 12.8 14.6 NA 10.0 9.6 9.6 9.2 8.3 8.0 8.8
    Participating in Food Stamp Or Donated Food Program 52.9 75.1 75.1 83.0 84.6 85.6 87.3 88.7 89.8 89.3
    Incld. Non-Recipient Members 33.1 34.8 NA 36.9 36.8 37.7 38.9 46.4 48.3 49.9

Table A-7. AFDC/TANF Assistance by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1978 – 1997

[Millions of dollars]

  1978 1982 1986 1988 1992 1994 1996 19971
United States $10,621 $12,857 $15,235 $16,663 $22,251 $22,797 $20,411 $17,648

1 Provisional.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Program Support, Office of Management Services, unpublished data from the ACF-196 TANF Report and ACF-231 AFDC Line by Line Report.

Alabama $78 $72 $68 $62 $85 $92 $75 $64
Alaska 17 32 46 54 96 113 107 99
Arizona 30 49 79 103 243 266 228 187
Arkansas 51 34 48 53 61 57 52 48
California 1,813 2,734 3,574 4,091 5,828 6,088 5,908 5,036
Colorado 74 87 107 125 163 158 129 108
Connecticut 169 210 223 218 377 397 323 321
Delaware 28 28 25 24 37 40 35 31
Dist. of Columbia 91 86 77 76 102 126 121 105
Florida 145 207 261 318 733 806 680 544
Georgia 103 172 223 266 420 428 385 316
Guam 3 4 4 3 8 12 14 11
Hawaii 83 88 73 77 125 163 173 163
Idaho 21 20 19 19 24 30 30 20
Illinois 700 802 886 815 883 914 833 707
Indiana 118 139 148 167 218 228 154 126
Iowa 107 127 170 155 164 169 131 120
Kansas 73 81 91 97 119 123 98 112
Kentucky 122 123 104 143 213 198 191 181
Louisiana 97 127 162 182 182 168 130 117
Maine 51 59 84 80 118 108 99 90
Maryland 166 213 250 250 333 314 285 232
Massachusetts 476 468 471 558 751 730 560 472
Michigan 780 1,064 1,248 1,231 1,162 1,132 779 754
Minnesota 165 235 322 338 387 379 333 228
Mississippi 33 55 74 85 89 82 68 60
Missouri 152 176 209 215 274 287 254 219
Montana 15 19 37 41 46 49 46 43
Nebraska 38 49 62 56 65 62 54 49
Nevada 8 12 16 20 41 48 48 40
New Hampshire 21 25 20 21 54 62 50 44
New Jersey 489 513 509 459 527 531 463 426
New Mexico 32 45 51 56 106 144 153 131
New York 1,689 1,641 2,099 2,140 2,944 2,913 2,929 2,657
North Carolina 138 143 138 206 335 353 300 270
North Dakota 14 14 20 22 28 26 21 19
Ohio 441 606 804 805 984 1,016 763 697
Oklahoma 74 74 100 119 169 165 122 94
Oregon 148 100 120 128 200 197 155 175
Pennsylvania 726 740 389 747 906 935 822 702
Puerto Rico 25 65 33 67 75 74 63 45
Rhode Island 59 70 79 82 128 136 125 118
South Carolina 52 76 103 91 119 115 101 72
South Dakota 18 17 15 21 25 25 22 18
Tennessee 77 74 100 125 206 215 190 130
Texas 122 118 281 344 517 544 496 365
Utah 41 47 55 61 76 77 64 58
Vermont 21 38 40 40 67 65 56 53
Virgin Islands 2 3 2 2 4 4 4 3
Virginia 136 166 179 169 225 253 199 161
Washington 175 240 375 401 606 610 585 499
West Virginia 53 56 109 107 120 126 102 89
Wisconsin 260 407 444 506 453 425 291 206
Wyoming 6 9 16 19 27 21 17 12

Table A-8. Comparison of Federal Funding for AFDC and Related Programs and Family Assistance Grants Under PRWORA

[In millions]

State FY 1996 Grants for AFDC, EA & JOBS1 FY 1997 State Family Assistance Grant2 Increase from FY 1996 Level Percent Increase from FY 1996 Level
United States $14,931 $16,489 $1,558 10.4

1 Excludes IV-A child care. AFDC benefits include the Federal share of child support collections to be comparable to the Family LAssistance Grant; 1996 expenditures as reported through February 25, 1997.

2 Does not include additional funds authorized under P.L. 104-327.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Legislative Affairs and Budget.

Alabama $75.9 $93.3 $17.4 22.9
Alaska 58.7 63.6 4.9 8.4
Arizona 197.8 222.4 24.7 12.5
Arkansas 51.9 56.7 4.9 9.4
California 3,622.8 3,733.8 111.1 3.1
Colorado 158.3 136.1 -22.3 -14.1
Connecticut 215.3 266.8 51.5 23.9
Delaware 35.2 32.3 -2.9 -8.2
Dist of Columbia 70.8 92.6 21.8 30.8
Florida 497.5 562.3 64.8 13.0
Georgia 288.4 330.7 42.3 14.7
Hawaii 97.9 98.9 1.0 1.0
Idaho 31.3 31.9 0.6 2.0
Illinois 601.1 585.1 -16.0 -2.7
Indiana 133.1 206.8 73.7 55.3
Iowa 128.9 131.5 2.7 2.1
Kansas 89.8 101.9 12.2 13.6
Kentucky 157.2 181.3 24.0 15.3
Louisiana 114.3 164.0 49.7 43.5
Maine 74.8 78.1 3.3 4.5
Maryland 214.3 229.1 14.8 6.9
Massachusetts 353.1 459.4 106.3 30.1
Michigan 632.2 775.4 143.1 22.6
Minnesota 220.8 268.0 47.1 21.3
Mississippi 70.3 86.8 16.4 23.4
Missouri 195.4 217.1 21.7 11.1
Montana 40.4 45.5 5.1 12.7
Nebraska 56.0 58.0 2.0 3.6
Nevada 41.4 44.0 2.6 6.3
New Hampshire 34.7 38.5 3.8 11.1
New Jersey 383.2 404.0 20.9 5.4
New Mexico 132.1 126.1 -6.0 -4.6
New York 2,160.7 2,442.9 282.3 13.1
North Carolina 312.6 302.2 -10.4 -3.3
North Dakota 25.7 26.4 0.7 2.9
Ohio 543.7 728.0 184.3 33.9
Oklahoma 118.2 148.0 29.8 25.2
Oregon 142.0 167.9 25.9 18.2
Pennsylvania 770.1 719.5 -50.6 -6.6
Rhode Island 89.5 95.0 5.5 6.2
South Carolina 94.4 100.0 5.6 5.9
South Dakota 20.2 21.9 1.7 8.2
Tennessee 137.4 191.5 54.1 39.3
Texas 419.0 486.3 67.2 16.0
Utah 64.7 76.8 12.1 18.8
Vermont 42.4 47.4 5.0 11.7
Virginia 121.4 158.3 36.9 30.4
Washington 415.4 404.3 -11.1 -2.7
West Virginia 87.7 110.2 22.5 25.7
Wisconsin 276.4 318.2 41.8 15.1
Wyoming 15.0 21.8 6.8 45.5

Table A-9. Average Monthly AFDC Recipients by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997

[In thousands]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97
United States 11,130 11,160 10,813 10,934 13,625 14,226 12,644 10,941 29.3 -22.6
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Time Trends, FY 1984-1995, and unpublished data.
Alabama 169 171 151 129 142 132 105 86 8.3 -38.6
Alaska 11 16 16 19 32 38 36 35 87.3 -2.8
Arizona 58 62 72 105 181 201 172 147 86.5 -25.0
Arkansas 95 84 64 70 75 69 58 53 4.4 -26.9
California 1,434 1,523 1,619 1,763 2,307 2,639 2,626 2,404 39.7 -2.4
Colorado 92 82 79 97 122 119 99 80 26.6 -35.4
Connecticut 135 142 122 106 157 166 162 154 52.1 -4.4
Delaware 31 33 24 19 26 27 23 22 44.2 -20.2
Dist. of Columbia 96 81 58 48 60 74 70 66 39.4 -0.7
Florida 242 277 271 327 601 669 561 451 112.5 -35.0
Georgia 248 236 239 266 388 393 353 282 49.8 -29.2
Guam 4 6 6 4 5 7 8 8 33.6 42.5
Hawaii 56 62 51 43 50 62 67 71 30.6 27.2
Idaho 20 20 17 17 20 23 23 16 26.6 -24.4
Illinois 771 709 735 632 688 712 655 580 9.0 -15.8
Indiana 165 172 165 147 199 216 148 122 43.0 -42.0
Iowa 95 110 123 98 103 110 89 78 3.6 -22.6
Kansas 76 74 67 74 85 87 68 54 19.2 -39.0
Kentucky 202 175 160 156 229 208 175 158 44.4 -29.8
Louisiana 218 216 230 277 274 248 236 187 -5.0 -28.6
Maine 60 57 57 51 68 64 56 49 32.8 -26.8
Maryland 213 221 195 176 221 222 204 163 25.6 -26.3
Massachusetts 373 344 235 242 310 307 237 207 34.6 -36.3
Michigan 651 759 691 640 674 666 527 449 7.5 -34.8
Minnesota 131 149 152 164 192 187 171 157 17.1 -18.1
Mississippi 174 176 155 179 177 159 129 102 -4.0 -40.3
Missouri 265 215 197 203 251 263 232 197 28.7 -24.7
Montana 18 20 22 28 32 35 31 27 24.9 -22.4
Nebraska 34 39 44 41 48 45 39 37 17.6 -23.6
Nevada 12 14 14 20 32 38 38 29 74.9 -16.3
New Hampshire 25 24 14 13 28 30 24 20 131.9 -33.1
New Jersey 449 469 367 298 353 335 288 251 17.3 -28.2
New Mexico 55 56 51 59 88 102 101 81 62.6 -14.6
New York 1,247 1,108 1,112 979 1,117 1,255 1,184 1,048 22.2 -12.4
North Carolina 200 201 166 200 313 333 278 243 67.1 -27.3
North Dakota 14 13 12 15 18 16 13 11 21.1 -38.4
Ohio 563 590 673 629 749 685 546 494 14.2 -31.3
Oklahoma 89 91 82 103 135 131 105 82 34.0 -40.7
Oregon 122 92 74 87 116 114 87 62 34.8 -46.9
Pennsylvania 655 643 561 523 594 620 544 461 16.3 -24.2
Puerto Rico 188 172 173 185 194 183 155 144 2.6 -24.4
Rhode Island 53 55 44 42 59 63 58 55 47.3 -11.7
South Carolina 140 157 120 107 140 140 119 90 36.4 -38.8
South Dakota 24 19 16 19 20 19 16 13 6.2 -33.2
Tennessee 188 174 155 195 266 300 260 184 59.0 -40.7
Texas 315 325 363 540 758 788 684 574 44.8 -26.6
Utah 37 42 38 44 52 50 40 34 20.6 -35.6
Vermont 22 25 22 20 29 28 25 23 44.7 -19.3
Virgin Islands 4 4 4 3 4 4 5 5 11.1 20.3
Virginia 173 175 154 146 188 195 162 130 33.4 -33.1
Washington 143 155 178 219 273 292 274 254 31.4 -11.8
West Virginia 64 81 106 109 119 114 95 82 8.9 -31.2
Wisconsin 201 241 288 245 244 226 170 120 -3.3 -49.4
Wyoming 7 7 10 14 19 16 13 7 32.8 -59.9

Table A-10. AFDC Caseload by State, October 1989 to June 1998 Peak

[In thousands]

State Peak Caseload Oct ‘89 to June ‘98 Date Peak Occurred Oct ’89 to June ‘98 June ‘97 Caseload June ‘98 Caseload Percent Decline1 From June ‘97 Percent Decline From Peak
Alabama 52.3 Mar-93 32.0 22.7 29.3 56.7
Alaska 13.4 Apr-94 12.0 10.1 16.2 24.5
Arizona 72.8 Dec-93 52.5 37.0 29.5 49.1
Arkansas 27.1 Mar-92 20.7 12.9 37.6 52.5
California 933.1 Mar-95 789.9 689.4 12.7 26.1
Colorado 43.7 Dec-93 28.7 19.8 30.8 54.7
Connecticut 61.9 Mar-95 55.5 41.0 26.1 33.8
Delaware 11.8 Apr-94 9.5 6.7 28.7 42.9
Dist. of Columbia 27.5 Apr-94 23.7 20.5 13.6 25.5
Florida 259.9 Nov-92 160.6 98.7 38.5 62.0
Georgia 142.8 Nov-93 98.2 69.8 28.9 51.1
Guam 2.6 Sep-97 2.2 1.9 12.5 25.2
Hawaii 23.6 Jan-98 23.4 23.6 -0.9 0.0
Idaho 9.5 Mar-95 6.7 1.8 72.7 80.7
Illinois 243.1 Aug-94 191.6 164.2 14.3 32.5
Indiana 76.1 Sep-93 42.4 38.5 9.1 49.3
Iowa 40.7 Apr-94 28.4 24.2 14.8 40.6
Kansas 30.8 Aug-93 18.2 12.9 28.9 58.0
Kentucky 84.0 Mar-93 62.5 49.6 20.6 40.9
Louisiana 94.7 May-90 51.7 48.4 6.3 48.9
Maine 24.4 Aug-93 18.2 15.2 16.2 37.5
Maryland 81.8 May-95 55.0 46.0 16.4 43.8
Massachusetts 115.7 Aug-93 76.0 63.5 16.5 45.1
Michigan 233.6 Apr-91 145.8 115.4 20.8 50.6
Minnesota 66.2 Jun-92 52.3 48.7 7.0 26.5
Mississippi 61.8 Nov-91 36.4 20.8 42.9 66.4
Missouri 93.7 Mar-94 67.6 57.0 15.6 39.2
Montana 12.3 Mar-94 8.8 7.4 16.3 40.0
Nebraska 17.2 Mar-93 13.3 13.3 0.1 22.7
Nevada 16.3 Mar-95 11.7 9.9 15.6 39.5
New Hampshire 11.8 Apr-94 7.9 6.1 22.4 48.2
New Jersey 132.6 Nov-92 97.6 76.8 21.3 42.1
New Mexico 34.9 Nov-94 25.9 22.7 12.4 34.9
New York 463.7 Dec-94 371.0 324.8 12.5 29.9
North Carolina 134.1 Mar-94 95.6 68.0 28.9 49.3
North Dakota 6.6 Apr-93 4.0 3.2 20.6 51.9
Ohio 269.8 Mar-92 180.5 131.4 27.2 51.3
Oklahoma 51.3 Mar-93 28.3 22.3 21.2 56.6
Oregon 43.8 Apr-93 22.7 18.4 19.2 58.0
Pennsylvania 212.5 Sep-94 157.0 129.4 17.6 39.1
Puerto Rico 61.7 Jan-92 47.3 40.9 13.5 33.8
Rhode Island 22.9 Apr-94 19.5 19.0 2.8 17.1
South Carolina 54.6 Jan-93 30.3 23.3 23.4 57.4
South Dakota 7.4 Apr-93 5.0 3.7 25.7 49.3
Tennessee 112.6 Nov-93 64.4 57.1 11.4 49.3
Texas 287.5 Dec-93 204.0 132.5 35.0 53.9
Utah 18.7 Mar-93 11.6 10.5 9.7 43.9
Vermont 10.3 Apr-92 8.2 7.2 12.5 30.3
Virgin Islands 1.4 Dec-95 1.2 1.2 4.2 18.3
Virginia 76.0 Apr-94 50.9 40.8 19.9 46.3
Washington 104.8 Feb-95 91.4 75.0 17.9 28.5
West Virginia 41.9 Apr-93 28.7 13.4 53.4 68.1
Wisconsin 82.9 Jan-92 38.1 11.3 70.4 86.4
Wyoming 7.1 Aug-92 2.0 1.3 37.0 81.9
United States 5,098 Mar-94 3,789 3,031 20.0 40.5

1 Negative values denote percent increase.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Division of Data Collection and Analysis.

Table A-11. Average Number of AFDC Child Recipients By State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997 1

[In thousands]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 19971 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97
United States 7,818 7,614 7,165 7,370 9,226 9,611 8,671 7,781 29.7 -18.6

1 Data shown for 1997 are averages for the first nine months of the fiscal year because information on child recipients is currently
available only through June of 1997.

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, unpublished data.

Alabama 130 122 105 92 101 96 79 69 9.2 -31.1
Alaska 8 11 10 13 20 24 23 23 82.3 -0.2
Arizona 44 45 50 74 126 136 118 105 82.1 -21.8
Arkansas 72 61 45 50 53 49 42 39 4.4 -24.4
California 977 1,009 1,070 1,186 1,602 1,804 1,805 1,701 43.7 -0.2
Colorado 63 56 53 66 82 80 68 60 26.1 -27.4
Connecticut 98 98 82 71 105 111 108 104 51.5 -4.1
Delaware 22 23 16 13 18 19 16 15 42.0 -19.3
Dist. of Columbia 66 56 43 38 42 51 48 47 20.4 2.6
Florida 179 197 191 235 417 463 395 339 103.3 -29.0
Georgia 189 171 166 187 268 274 251 216 47.9 -21.8
Guam 3 4 4 3 3 5 6 6 31.1 48.3
Hawaii 40 41 33 28 34 41 44 46 31.5 24.7
Idaho 13 14 11 11 13 16 16 14 24.3 -4.8
Illinois 543 491 493 432 472 486 456 414 9.3 -12.4
Indiana 116 120 111 100 133 145 104 86 39.8 -38.3
Iowa 65 72 77 63 67 72 59 53 4.9 -19.9
Kansas 54 52 45 50 57 59 48 40 17.9 -32.4
Kentucky 147 122 107 105 147 137 120 111 38.4 -22.9
Louisiana 155 158 163 195 195 180 162 138 -3.2 -26.8
Maine 41 39 36 32 42 40 35 32 31.3 -22.8
Maryland 154 149 126 117 149 151 140 117 27.4 -22.0
Massachusetts 249 222 152 154 208 197 153 136 35.3 -34.8
Michigan 417 493 441 414 441 439 354 312 8.6 -30.6
Minnesota 89 98 95 105 125 124 116 108 19.4 -13.8
Mississippi 127 129 112 129 128 116 96 81 -3.5 -34.5
Missouri 194 144 129 134 164 176 162 145 27.7 -15.5
Montana 13 14 15 18 21 23 21 18 26.2 -18.5
Nebraska 23 27 29 28 33 31 27 25 16.3 -22.3
Nevada 8 10 9 14 22 27 27 23 74.0 -7.5
New Hampshire 17 16 9 8 18 19 16 14 122.6 -27.1
New Jersey 316 322 247 205 241 228 195 174 16.3 -27.0
New Mexico 41 38 34 41 57 66 65 57 52.4 -7.9
New York 878 759 729 648 743 813 771 704 20.8 -10.0
North Carolina 150 141 113 136 210 223 191 171 64.1 -23.3
North Dakota 9 9 8 10 12 11 9 8 17.6 -32.6
Ohio 398 389 424 411 489 455 382 358 15.1 -24.3
Oklahoma 66 66 57 71 92 90 74 61 33.4 -35.7
Oregon 81 60 49 58 76 76 60 45 33.3 -41.8
Pennsylvania 470 438 369 348 397 417 368 325 17.1 -20.4
Puerto Rico 115 120 116 126 132 124 105 99 2.4 -23.6
Rhode Island 37 37 28 28 39 41 39 37 46.9 -9.3
South Carolina 99 111 84 77 100 102 89 69 37.5 -34.4
South Dakota 18 13 11 13 14 14 12 10 7.2 -26.3
Tennessee 131 122 105 133 180 203 181 137 63.1 -36.9
Texas 235 236 256 378 528 549 484 427 44.2 -21.8
Utah 22 27 24 28 34 33 27 24 22.7 -32.3
Vermont 17 16 14 12 18 17 16 15 41.3 -16.8
Virgin Islands 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 8.8 22.9
Virginia 122 120 103 100 129 134 114 96 33.6 -28.1
Washington 101 99 113 141 176 187 177 169 31.1 -8.5
West Virginia 50 62 64 67 73 72 62 55 10.1 -26.2
Wisconsin 141 159 181 161 165 153 123 94 -1.4 -41.0
Wyoming 5 5 7 9 13 11 9 6 34.4 -51.8

Table A-12. AFDC Recipiency Rates for Children by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 - 1997

[In percent]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97

Note: Recipiency rate refers to the average monthly number of AFDC child recipients in each State during the given fiscal year as a percent of the resident population under 18 years of age as of July 1 of that year. The numerators are from Table A-11.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Bureau of the Census, (Resident population by state available online at http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/).

Alabama 11.0 10.7 9.7 8.6 9.5 8.9 7.4 6.4 9 -31
Alaska 5.4 8.3 5.9 7.3 10.9 12.8 12.5 12.2 69 -0
Arizona 5.8 5.7 5.9 7.6 11.9 12.1 9.6 8.2 62 -33
Arkansas 10.7 9.3 7.1 7.9 8.5 7.7 6.4 5.9 3 -28
California 15.3 15.7 15.6 15.6 19.1 20.8 20.3 19.0 28 -5
Colorado 7.8 6.8 6.1 7.6 8.8 8.4 6.8 5.9 16 -33
Connecticut 11.1 12.2 10.8 9.5 13.7 14.2 13.7 13.1 46 -6
Delaware 12.4 14.0 10.2 8.1 10.4 10.5 8.9 8.5 33 -21
Dist. of Columbia 40.7 40.0 33.9 30.7 36.8 44.6 44.0 43.9 30 10
Florida 7.7 8.2 7.6 8.4 13.4 14.1 11.6 9.8 78 -35
Georgia 11.4 10.4 10.1 10.8 14.9 14.6 12.8 10.9 38 -27
Hawaii 14.3 14.8 11.6 10.1 11.5 13.6 14.5 15.3 24 23
Idaho 4.4 4.3 3.6 3.7 4.1 4.6 4.6 3.9 15 -10
Illinois 16.0 15.4 16.1 14.5 15.6 15.8 14.4 13.0 7 -16
Indiana 6.9 7.6 7.5 6.9 9.2 9.8 7.0 5.8 40 -40
Iowa 7.5 8.9 10.2 8.8 9.3 9.9 8.2 7.3 4 -20
Kansas 8.1 8.1 6.9 7.6 8.4 8.6 7.0 5.8 14 -33
Kentucky 13.3 11.5 10.5 10.9 15.4 14.1 12.4 11.6 38 -23
Louisiana 11.6 11.8 12.2 15.5 15.9 14.6 13.4 11.6 -1 -25
Maine 12.2 12.3 11.7 10.4 13.8 13.1 11.8 10.9 32 -21
Maryland 12.3 13.0 11.4 10.2 12.2 12.0 11.1 9.2 18 -24
Massachusetts 15.5 15.3 11.2 11.4 15.1 13.9 10.6 9.4 31 -37
Michigan 14.4 18.3 17.7 16.9 17.7 17.5 14.1 12.5 6 -31
Minnesota 7.2 8.5 8.5 9.2 10.3 10.1 9.4 8.7 13 -16
Mississippi 15.4 16.1 14.0 17.1 17.1 15.4 12.7 10.8 -3 -35
Missouri 13.6 10.7 9.8 10.2 12.2 12.9 11.7 10.3 24 -18
Montana 5.4 6.0 6.1 7.9 9.0 9.7 8.9 8.0 22 -17
Nebraska 4.9 6.0 6.8 6.5 7.5 7.1 6.1 5.7 15 -24
Nevada 4.2 4.3 3.9 5.0 6.6 7.1 6.5 5.1 37 -26
New Hampshire 6.5 6.1 3.7 3.1 6.3 6.7 5.4 4.6 114 -29
New Jersey 14.8 16.6 13.5 11.3 12.8 11.7 9.9 8.7 10 -30
New Mexico 9.9 9.1 7.8 9.0 12.1 13.5 13.1 11.4 42 -11
New York 17.5 16.6 16.7 15.1 16.8 18.1 16.9 15.4 16 -12
North Carolina 8.8 8.7 7.1 8.5 12.5 12.7 10.4 9.2 54 -30
North Dakota 4.7 4.8 4.3 5.7 6.9 6.4 5.4 4.9 23 -30
Ohio 12.2 12.9 14.7 14.6 17.3 16.0 13.4 12.6 14 -24
Oklahoma 7.9 7.6 6.3 8.3 10.7 10.4 8.5 6.9 31 -37
Oregon 11.3 8.2 6.9 8.2 10.0 9.7 7.5 5.6 22 -45
Pennsylvania 14.1 14.4 12.9 12.4 13.9 14.4 12.8 11.3 15 -20
Rhode Island 14.3 15.6 12.6 12.1 16.9 17.7 16.7 15.7 43 -9
South Carolina 10.4 11.9 9.1 8.3 10.7 10.8 9.4 7.3 36 -36
South Dakota 8.3 6.5 5.7 6.7 7.0 6.6 5.9 5.3 3 -23
Tennessee 9.9 9.5 8.6 10.9 14.4 15.7 13.7 10.3 57 -39
Texas 5.6 5.4 5.4 7.9 10.4 10.4 8.8 7.6 34 -27
Utah 4.6 4.7 4.0 4.5 5.3 4.9 4.0 3.4 16 -35
Vermont 11.3 10.9 9.9 8.8 12.2 11.7 10.8 10.0 37 -17
Virginia 8.0 8.3 7.1 6.7 8.2 8.4 7.0 5.8 27 -31
Washington 9.1 8.6 9.7 11.5 12.9 13.3 12.4 11.6 17 -13
West Virginia 8.8 11.2 12.6 14.8 17.0 16.8 14.7 13.3 16 -23
Wisconsin 9.8 11.9 14.2 12.6 12.4 11.4 9.2 7.0 -5 -42
Wyoming 3.6 3.3 4.1 6.6 9.2 8.1 6.9 4.5 37 -50
United States 11.8 11.8 11.2 11.4 13.8 14.0 12.4 11.0 23 -22

Table A-13. AFDC Recipiency Rates for Total Population by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997

[In percent]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1997 1997 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97
United States 5.0 4.8 4.5 4.4 5.3 5.4 4.7 4.0 24 -25

Note: Recipiency rate refers to the average monthly number of AFDC recipients in each State during the given fiscal year expressed as a percent of the total resident population as of July 1 of that year. The numerators are from Table A-9.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Bureau of the Census, (Resident population by state available online at http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/).

Alabama 4.5 4.4 3.8 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.5 2.0 4 -40
Alaska 2.8 3.9 3.0 3.5 5.4 6.3 6.0 5.8 72 -5
Arizona 2.4 2.2 2.3 2.9 4.7 4.8 3.9 3.2 69 -34
Arkansas 4.3 3.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 2.8 2.3 2.1 1 -30
California 6.4 6.3 6.1 6.0 7.5 8.4 8.2 7.4 31 -6
Colorado 3.4 2.7 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.3 2.6 2.0 16 -41
Connecticut 4.4 4.5 3.8 3.2 4.8 5.1 5.0 4.7 53 -4
Delaware 5.3 5.5 3.9 2.9 3.8 3.9 3.2 3.0 36 -24
Dist. of Columbia 14.2 12.7 9.2 7.7 10.3 13.1 13.0 12.5 51 8
Florida 2.7 2.7 2.4 2.6 4.5 4.8 3.9 3.1 96 -39
Georgia 4.8 4.2 4.0 4.1 5.7 5.6 4.8 3.8 39 -35
Hawaii 6.1 6.3 4.9 3.9 4.4 5.3 5.6 6.0 23 24
Idaho 2.3 2.1 1.7 1.7 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.3 14 -31
Illinois 6.8 6.2 6.4 5.5 5.9 6.1 5.5 4.9 6 -17
Indiana 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.7 3.5 3.8 2.5 2.1 39 -44
Iowa 3.3 3.8 4.3 3.5 3.7 3.9 3.1 2.7 2 -23
Kansas 3.3 3.1 2.8 3.0 3.4 3.4 2.7 2.1 16 -40
Kentucky 5.7 4.8 4.3 4.2 6.1 5.4 4.5 4.0 40 -32
Louisiana 5.4 5.0 5.2 6.5 6.4 5.8 5.4 4.3 -6 -30
Maine 5.4 5.0 4.9 4.2 5.5 5.2 4.5 4.0 31 -27
Maryland 5.1 5.2 4.4 3.7 4.5 4.4 4.0 3.2 20 -28
Massachusetts 6.5 6.0 4.0 4.0 5.2 5.1 3.9 3.4 35 -37
Michigan 7.1 8.2 7.6 6.9 7.1 6.9 5.4 4.6 4 -36
Minnesota 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.8 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.3 12 -21
Mississippi 7.1 6.9 6.0 6.9 6.8 6.0 4.8 3.8 -6 -42
Missouri 5.5 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.8 5.0 4.3 3.6 25 -27
Montana 2.3 2.6 2.7 3.5 3.9 4.1 3.6 3.1 19 -26
Nebraska 2.2 2.5 2.8 2.6 3.0 2.8 2.3 2.2 15 -26
Nevada 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.8 2.4 2.6 2.3 1.8 44 -31
New Hampshire 2.9 2.5 1.4 1.2 2.5 2.7 2.1 1.7 128 -36
New Jersey 6.1 6.3 4.9 3.9 4.5 4.2 3.6 3.1 15 -30
New Mexico 4.5 4.2 3.5 3.9 5.6 6.2 5.9 4.7 51 -20
New York 7.0 6.3 6.2 5.4 6.2 6.9 6.5 5.8 21 -12
North Carolina 3.5 3.4 2.6 3.1 4.6 4.7 3.8 3.3 58 -32
North Dakota 2.1 2.0 1.8 2.4 2.9 2.6 2.1 1.8 23 -39
Ohio 5.2 5.5 6.3 5.8 6.8 6.2 4.9 4.4 12 -32
Oklahoma 3.1 2.9 2.5 3.3 4.2 4.0 3.2 2.5 31 -42
Oregon 5.0 3.5 2.8 3.1 3.9 3.7 2.7 1.9 24 -50
Pennsylvania 5.5 5.4 4.8 4.4 5.0 5.1 4.5 3.8 15 -24
Rhode Island 5.6 5.7 4.5 4.2 5.9 6.3 5.9 5.5 48 -11
South Carolina 4.7 4.9 3.6 3.1 3.9 3.8 3.2 2.4 30 -41
South Dakota 3.5 2.7 2.3 2.7 2.8 2.6 2.2 1.8 2 -35
Tennessee 4.3 3.8 3.3 4.0 5.3 5.8 4.9 3.4 52 -44
Texas 2.4 2.2 2.2 3.2 4.3 4.3 3.6 3.0 35 -32
Utah 2.8 2.8 2.3 2.6 2.8 2.6 2.0 1.6 10 -41
Vermont 4.5 4.8 4.2 3.5 5.1 4.8 4.3 3.9 41 -21
Virginia 3.3 3.2 2.7 2.4 3.0 3.0 2.4 1.9 26 -36
Washington 3.8 3.7 4.0 4.6 5.3 5.5 5.0 4.5 19 -17
West Virginia 3.3 4.1 5.5 6.0 6.6 6.3 5.2 4.5 8 -31
Wisconsin 4.3 5.1 6.1 5.0 4.9 4.5 3.3 2.3 -7 -51
Wyoming 1.6 1.4 2.0 3.0 4.1 3.4 2.7 1.5 30 -61

Food Stamp Program

The Food Stamp Program, administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Food and Nutrition Service, is the largest food assistance program in the country, reaching more poor individuals over the course of a year than any other public assistance program. In fiscal year 1997, 22.9 million persons were served and $19.6 billion in benefits were distributed. Unlike many other public assistance programs, the Food Stamp Program has few categorical requirements for eligibility, such as the presence of children, elderly or disabled individuals in a household. As a result, the program offers assistance to a large and diverse population of needy persons, many of whom are not eligible for other forms of assistance.

The Food Stamp Program was designed primarily to increase the food purchasing power of eligible low-income households to the point where they can buy a nutritionally adequate low-cost diet. Participating households are expected to be able to devote 30 percent of their counted monthly cash income to food purchases. Food stamp benefits then make up the difference between the household’s expected contribution to its food costs and an amount judged to be sufficient to buy an adequate low-cost diet. This amount, the maximum food stamp benefit level, is derived from USDA’s lowest-cost food plan (the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP)).

The Federal government is responsible for virtually all of the rules that govern the program and, with limited variations these rules are nationally uniform, as are the benefit levels. Nonetheless, States, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the Virgin Islands, through their local welfare offices, have primary responsibility for the day-to-day administration of the program2. They determine eligibility, calculate benefits, and issue food stamp allotments. The Food Stamp Act provides 100 percent Federal funding of food stamp benefits. States and other jurisdictions have responsibility for about half the cost of state welfare agency administration.

The Food Stamp Program has financial, employment/training-related and “categorical” tests for eligibility. The basic food stamp beneficiary unit is the “household.” Generally, individuals living together constitute a single food stamp household if they customarily purchase food and prepare meals in common. Members of the same household must apply together, and their income, expenses, and assets normally are aggregated in determining food stamp eligibility and benefits. Except for households composed entirely of AFDC, SSI, or general assistance recipients (who generally are automatically eligible for food stamps), monthly cash income is the primary food stamp eligibility determinant. Unless exempt, adult applicants for food stamps must register for work, typically with the welfare agency or a state employment service office. To maintain eligibility, they must accept a suitable job if offered one and fulfill any work, job search, or training requirements established by the administering welfare agencies.

Food stamp benefits are a function of a household’s size, its net monthly income, and maximum monthly benefit levels. Allotments are not taxable and food stamp purchases may not be charged sales taxes. Receipt of food stamps does not affect eligibility for or benefits provided by other welfare programs, although some programs use food stamp participation use food stamps as a “trigger” for eligibility and others take into account the general availability of food stamps in deciding what level of benefits to provide. In fiscal year 1997, monthly benefits averaged $71 a person and about $178 a household.

The size of the population eligible for food stamps is influenced by many factors, including changes in program rules (including immigration laws), changes in the economy, and demographics. Similarly, changes in the economy and changes in attitudes toward “welfare” affect the rate at which eligible individuals participate in the program and may also influence the average length of time spent in the program.

Recent Legislative Changes. Subtitle A of title VIII of the PRWORA contains major and extensive revisions to the Food Stamp Program, including provisions designed to strengthen work and other nonfinancial eligibility requirements and control future spending increases. The impact on program participation and expenditures resulting from some of those provisions are reflected in preliminary 1997 data, while the effects of others will be observable over time.

A new work requirement was added for able-bodied adult food stamp recipients without children. Unless exempt, no individual may be eligible for food stamps if, during the preceding 36-month period, the individual received food stamp benefits for any 3 months while not: (1) working at least 20 hours a week; (2) participating in and complying with a work program for at least 20 hours a week; or (3) participating in and complying with a workfare program. USDA was authorized to waive application of the work requirement to any group of individuals at the request of the state agency, if a determination is made that the area where they reside has an unemployment rate over 10 percent or does not have a sufficient number of jobs to provide them employment. The impacts were further moderated by provisions of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-33).

Separately, title IV of the act made significant changes in the eligibility of noncitizens for Food Stamp benefits. Most qualified aliens (including legal immigrants -- illegal aliens are already ineligible) were barred from Food Stamps until citizenship. Subsequently, the Agriculture Research, Extension and Education Reform Act of 1998 [PL 105-185] restored food stamp eligibility to certain groups of qualified aliens who were legally residing in the United States before passage of PRWORA (August 22, 1996). The ban was lifted for children, disabled and people who were 65 on August 22, 1996.

Growth in future program expenditures was restrained by changes in the benefit structure for eligible participants, including a reduction in the maximum food stamp allotment. Other provisions of the act disqualify from eligibility those convicted of drug-related felonies and give states the option to disqualify individuals, both custodial and noncustodial parents, from food stamps when they do not cooperate with child support agencies or are in arrears in their child support.

Food Stamp Program Data. The following six tables and figures provide information about the Food Stamp Program:

  • Tables A-14 and A-15 present national caseload and expenditure trend data on the Food Stamp program. As noted above, some PRWORA effects are reflected in the fiscal year 1997 data;
  • Figure A-5 and Table A-16 present some demographic characteristics of the food stamp caseload; and
  • Tables A-17 through A-19 present some state-by-state trend data on the Food Stamp program through fiscal year 1996.

Table A-14 presents information on the average monthly number of food stamp recipients for each fiscal year since 1970 through Fiscal Year 1997. The health of the economy has historically been a good predictor of the number of participants in the Food Stamp Program. Food stamp participation (excluding Puerto Rico) has continued to fall from its peak in of 28 million in March 1994 to an average of 22.9 million persons in 1997, reaching their lowest point since 1990.3 As shown in Table A-15, total program costs have also declined, reaching their lowest levels since 1990, after adjusting for inflation. Total program costs (including Puerto Rico) were $25.6 billion in Fiscal Year 1996 and declined by 11 percent in 1997 to $22.8 billion. The average monthly benefit per person has also declined and, after adjusting for inflation, is at the same level paid in 1981.

Table A-14. Trends in Food Stamp Participation, 1970 – 1997

Fiscal Year Total Food Stamp Participants1 (in thousands) Child Food Stamp Participants1 (in thousands) Participants as a Percent of Total Population2 Participants as a Percent of All Poor Persons2 Participants as a Percent of Pre-transfer Poverty Population3 Child Participants as a Percent of Total Child Population2 Child Participants as a Percent of Children in Poverty2

1 Total participants includes all participating States, the District of Columbia, and the territories. The number of child participants includes only the participating States and D.C. (the territories are not included). From 1970 to 1974 the number of participants includes the family food assistance program (FFAP) which was largely replaced by the Food Stamp program in 1975. The FFAP participants for these five years were: 3,977; 3,642; 3,002; 2,441; and 1,406 (all in thousands). The monthly average number of participants for all fiscal years (including 1970-76) is computed as an average from October of the prior calender year to September of the current year.

2 Includes all participating States and the District of Columbia only--the territories are excluded from both numerator and denominator. Population numbers used as denominators are the resident population—see Current Population Reports, Series P25-1106. For the persons living in poverty used as denominators, see Current Population Reports, Series P60-201.

3 The pretransfer poverty population used as denominator is the number of all persons in families or living alone whose income (cash income plus social insurance plus Social Security but before taxes and means-tested transfers) falls below the appropriate poverty threshold. See Appendix J, Table 20, 1992 Green Book; data for subsequent years are unpublished Congressional Budget Office tabulations.

4 The first fiscal year in which food stamps were available nationwide.

5 The fiscal year in which the food stamp purchase requirement was eliminated, on a phased in basis.

6 Participation figures in column 1 from 1982 on include enrollment in Puerto Rico’s Nutrition Assistance Program (averaging 1.4 to 1.5 million persons a month under the nutrition assistance grant and higher figures in earlier years under Food Stamps).

e Estimated value.

Sources: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, National Data Bank, the 1996 Green Book, and U.S. Bureau of the Census,“Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and earlier years.

1970 8,277 NA 4.1 32.6 NA NA NA
1971 13,042 NA 6.3 51.0 NA NA NA
1972 14,102 NA 6.7 57.7 NA NA NA
1973 14,641 NA 6.9 63.7 NA NA NA
1974 14,784 NA 6.9 63.2 NA NA NA
19754 18,308 NA 7.9 66.2 NA NA NA
1976 18,240 9,126 7.7 66.7 NA 13.8 88.8
1977 17,014 NA 7.1 62.7 NA NA NA
1978 15,988 NA 6.5 58.9 NA NA NA
19795 17,682 NA 7.1 60.9 57.1 NA NA
1980 21,082 9,493 8.4 65.5 60.7 15.5 85.6
1981 22,430 9,674 9.0 64.6 60.8 15.5 78.4
19826 22,055 9,545 8.8 59.0 56.3 15.3 70.3
19836 23,195 10,783 9.2 61.1 58.5 17.4 78.4
19846 22,384 10,372 8.8 61.7 58.5 16.8 78.2
19856 21,379 9,824 8.3 60.0 56.6 15.8 76.1
19866 20,909 9,846 8.1 59.9 56.2 15.7 76.5
19876 20,583 9,765 7.9 59.2 55.6 15.5 75.4
19886 20,095 9,363 7.6 58.6 55.2 14.8 75.1
19896 20,266 9,429 7.6 59.6 55.6 14.9 74.9
19906 21,547 10,127 8.0 59.7 55.7 15.8 75.4
19916 24,115 11,952 9.0 63.3 59.3 18.4 83.3
19926 26,886 13,349 9.9 66.7 64.0 20.2 87.3
19936 28,422 14,196 10.5 68.6 63.8 21.2 90.3
19946 28,844 14,391 10.5 72.1 66.8 21.2 94.1
19956 27,945 13,860 10.1 73.0 67.6 20.2 94.5
19966 26,870 13,189 9.6 69.9 64.7 19.1 91.2
19976 24,160 11,800e 8.5 64.2 NA 17.0e 83.6e

Table A-15 Trends in Food Stamp Expenditures, 1970 – 1997

Fiscal Year Total Federal Cost Benefits2 (Federal)
[In millions]
Administration1   Average Monthly Benefit per Person
 Current Dollars
[In millions]
 1997 Dollars3
[In millions]
Federal
[In millions]
State & Local
[In millions]
Total Cost
[In millions]
Current Dollars 1997 Dollars3

1 All Federal administrative costs of the Food Stamp Program and Puerto Rico's block grant are included: Federal matching for the various administrative and employment and training expenses of States and other jurisdictions, and direct Federal administrative costs. Beginning in 1984 the administrative cost of certifying AFDC households for food stamps are shown in the food stamp appropriation. Figures for Federal administrative costs beginning with fiscal year 1989 include only those paid out of the Food Stamp appropriation and the Food Stamp portion of the general appropriation for food program administration. Figures for earlier years include estimates of food stamp related Federal administrative expenses paid out of other Agriculture Department accounts. State and local costs are estimated based on the known Federal shares and represent an estimate of all administrative expenses of participating States (including Puerto Rico).

2 All benefit costs associated with the Food Stamp Program and Puerto Rico's block grant are included. The benefit amounts shown in the table reflect small downward adjustments for overpayments collected from recipients and, beginning in 1989, issued but unredeemed benefits. Over time, the figures reflect both changes in benefit levels and numbers of recipients.

3 Constant dollar adjustments to 1997 level were made using the CPI-U-X1 price index.

4 From 1970 to 1974 total Federal cost includes the cost of the family food assistance program (FFAP) which was largely replaced by the Food Stamp program in 1975. The FFAP amounts for these years were: $289, $321, $312, $255, and $205 (in millions).

5 The first fiscal year in which benefit and eligibility rules were, by law, nationally uniform and indexed for inflation.

6 The first fiscal year in which food stamps were available nationwide.

7 The fiscal year in which the food stamp purchase requirement was eliminated, on a phased in basis.

8 Beginning 1984 USDA took over from DHHS the administrative cost of certifying public assistance households for food stamps.

9 Includes funding for Puerto Rico's nutrition assistance grant; earlier years include funding for Puerto Rico under the regular food stamp program. Average benefit figures do not reflect the lower benefits in Puerto Rico under its nutrition assistance program.

Sources: Budget documents of the U.S. Department Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service and the 1996 Green Book .

1970 8664 3,427 550 27 20 886 9.00 35.60
1971 1,8974 7,184 1,523 53 40 1,937 12.60 47.70
19725 2,1824 7,980 1,797 73 55 2,237 13.50 49.40
1973 2,4664 8,661 2,131 80 60 2,526 14.60 51.30
1974 3,0474 9,857 2,718 124 95 3,142 17.60 56.90
19756 4,624 13,632 4,386 238 180 4,804 21.40 63.10
1976 5,692 15,708 5,327 365 275 5,967 23.90 66.00
1977 5,469 14,051 5,067 402 300 5,769 24.70 63.50
1978 5,573 13,433 5,139 434 325 5,898 26.80 64.60
19797 6,995 15,504 6,480 515 388 7,383 30.60 67.80
1980 9,224 18,379 8,721 503 375 9,599 34.40 68.50
1981. 11,308 20,488 10,630 678 504 11,812 39.50 71.60
19829 11,318 19,159 10,609 709 557 11,875 39.20 66.40
19839 12,733 20,616 11,955 778 612 13,345 43.00 69.60
19849 12,470 19,365 11,499 9718 805 13,275 42.70 66.30
19859 12,599 18,886 11,556 1,043 871 13,470 45.00 67.50
19869 12,528 18,316 11,415 1,113 935 13,463 45.60 66.70
19879 12,539 17,827 11,344 1,195 996 13,535 45.80 65.10
19889 13,289 18,150 11,999 1,290 1,080 14,369 49.80 68.00
19899 13,904 18,122 12,572 1,332 1,101 15,005 51.90 67.60
19909 16,512 20,502 15,090 1,422 1,174 17,686 59.00 73.30
19919 19,765 23,361 18,249 1,516 1,247 21,012 63.90 75.50
19929 23,539 27,003 21,883 1,656 1,375 24,914 68.50 78.60
19939 24,749 27,560 23,033 1,716 1,572 26,321 67.96 75.70
19949 25,600 27,772 23,811 1,789 1,643 27,243 69.01 74.90
19959 25,818 27,251 23,901 1,917 1,748 27,566 71.27 75.20
19969 25,591 26,282 23,607 1,984 1,842 27,433 73.22 75.20
19979 22,778 22,778 20,751 2,026 1,882 24,660 71.27 71.30

Figure A-5. Characteristics of Food Stamp Recipients

Figure A-5. Characteristics of Food Stamp Recipients

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Analysis and Evaluation, Characteristics of Food Stamp Households: Fiscal Year 1996 and earlier years.


  • The percentage of food stamp households with earnings has stayed in a range of 18 to 23 percent, with an average over the years of 20 percent. Correspondingly, the percentage with gross monthly income below the poverty level has ranged from a low of 87 percent in 1980 to a high of 95 percent in the recession year 1982. During the 1990s, it has stayed almost constant at around 92 percent.
  • The percentage of households receiving food stamps with children has also been fairly constant at a little over 60 percent.
  • The percentage of food stamp households with public assistance income has ranged from a low of 65 percent in 1980 to a high of 73 percent in the recession year 1990.

Table A-16. Characteristics of Food Stamp Households, 1980 - 1996

[In percent]

  Year
  19801 19821 19841 19861 19881 19901 19921 19941 19961

1 Survey was conducted in August in the years 1980-84 and during the summer in the years from 1986 to the present.

2 Public assistance income includes AFDC, SSI, and general assistance.

3 In 1996 female heads of household with children whose spouse is present comprised about 7 percent of all female heads of household with children.

4 Elderly members and heads of household include those age 60 or older.

* Less than 0.5 percent.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Office of Analysis and Evaluation, Characteristics of Food Stamp Households, Fiscal Year 1996 and earlier years.

With Gross Monthly Income:
    Below the Federal Poverty Levels 87 95 93 93 92 92 92 90 91
    Between the Poverty Levels and 130 Percent of the Poverty Levels 10 5 6 6 8 8 8 9 8
    Above 130 Percent of Poverty 2 * 1 * * * * 1 1
With Earnings 19 18 19 21 20 19 21 21 23
With Public Assistance Income2 65 69 71 69 72 73 66 69 67
    With AFDC/TANF Income NA 42 42 38 42 43 40 38 37
    With SSI Income 18 18 18 18 20 19 19 23 24
With Children 60 58 61 61 61 61 62 61 60
    And Female Heads of Household NA 45 47 48 50 51 51 51 50
        With No Spouse Present3 NA NA NA NA 39 37 44 43 43
With Elderly Members4 23 20 22 20 19 18 15 16 16
    With Elderly Female Heads of Household4 NA 14 16 15 14 11 9 11 NA
Average Household Size 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5

Table A-17. Value of Food Stamps Issued by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997

[Millions of dollars]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997
United States1 $5,067 $10,630 $11,556 $12,572 $21,883 $23,796 $23,607 $20,700

1 Totals include small amounts not allocated to individual states: $6 million in 1977, $26 million in 1985, and $4 million in 1992.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, unpublished data from the National Data Bank.

Alabama $99 $293 $318 $276 $451 $456 $443 $393
Alaska 5 31 25 24 41 53 54 52
Arizona 45 125 121 176 377 418 377 316
Arkansas 66 138 126 130 207 212 225 214
California 333 604 639 747 1,760 2,395 2,559 2,378
Colorado 48 88 94 133 219 224 211 182
Connecticut 45 71 62 53 131 152 175 170
Delaware 26 27 22 19 42 48 95 91
Dist. of Columbia 8 47 40 36 70 86 47 41
Florida 261 502 368 455 1,306 1,324 1,296 1,061
Georgia 9 306 290 302 627 695 27 27
Guam 143 18 18 14 28 22 706 597
Hawaii 35 69 93 74 121 153 195 189
Idaho 285 35 36 37 53 57 1,034 933
Illinois 59 506 713 729 1,070 1,069 330 293
Indiana 29 204 242 185 373 415 141 125
Iowa 10 75 107 97 143 145 61 53
Kansas 15 52 64 80 133 146 135 112
Kentucky 126 268 332 300 430 416 418 372
Louisiana 134 270 365 484 677 642 597 512
Maine 29 69 62 48 109 111 115 103
Maryland 84 171 171 176 316 350 365 320
Massachusetts 147 191 173 154 315 330 294 262
Michigan 132 395 541 537 846 834 774 678
Minnesota 42 84 105 131 234 229 224 192
Mississippi 106 235 264 319 421 397 376 313
Missouri 69 183 212 255 447 482 482 401
Montana 9 23 31 36 52 56 59 55
Nebraska 11 31 44 50 78 79 78 72
Nevada 6 21 22 31 74 88 92 74
New Hampshire 13 27 15 12 45 46 42 35
New Jersey 157 280 260 232 433 486 513 449
New Mexico 40 90 88 100 182 194 200 168
New York 404 875 938 930 1,586 1,945 2,044 1,780
North Carolina 133 272 237 228 461 490 552 478
North Dakota 4 12 16 21 35 34 32 29
Ohio 262 508 697 751 1,102 1,076 944 750
Oklahoma 37 82 134 159 275 305 307 256
Oregon 42 133 142 150 226 241 260 216
Pennsylvania 204 490 547 554 916 1,001 983 865
Puerto Rico 581 879 786 871 973 1,050 1,102 1,134
Rhode Island 18 41 35 33 69 76 78 70
South Carolina 89 212 194 167 297 303 299 281
South Dakota 7 21 26 31 42 41 41 39
Tennessee 134 339 280 312 562 600 545 475
Texas 255 600 701 1,098 2,103 2,320 2,147 1,765
Utah 9 30 40 61 96 94 87 78
Vermont 11 22 20 17 37 44 43 40
Virgin Islands 12 21 23 14 19 23 451 25
Virginia 70 201 189 206 406 448 42 379
Washington 63 135 140 191 344 386 429 387
West Virginia 60 122 159 169 255 261 253 239
Wisconsin 38 99 148 157 236 220 200 158
Wyoming 3 7 15 18 26 27 28 23

Table A-18. Average Number of Food Stamp Recipients by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997

[In thousands]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97
United States 17,014 22,430 21,379 20,266 26,886 28,879 26,870 24,156 40 -15
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, unpublished data from the National Data Bank.
Alabama 316 605 588 436 550 545 509 469 29 -16
Alaska 11 32 22 26 38 46 46 45 65 5
Arizona 140 210 206 264 457 512 427 364 85 -26
Arkansas 213 305 253 227 277 283 274 266 25 -7
California 1,345 1,605 1,615 1,776 2,558 3,155 3,143 2,815 61 -2
Colorado 147 175 170 211 260 268 244 217 29 -20
Connecticut 178 175 145 114 202 223 223 210 90 -3
Delaware 26 56 40 30 51 59 58 54 95 -7
Dist. of Columbia 98 101 72 58 82 91 93 90 48 4
Florida 728 957 630 668 1,404 1,474 1,371 1,192 125 -21
Georgia 459 654 567 485 754 830 793 698 67 -14
Guam 22 25 20 13 20 15 18 18 0 41
Hawaii 108 104 99 78 94 115 130 127 32 23
Idaho 33 64 59 61 72 82 80 70 30 -11
Illinois 922 984 1,110 990 1,156 1,189 1,105 1,020 19 -14
Indiana 196 405 406 285 448 518 390 348 74 -30
Iowa 108 163 203 168 192 196 177 161 17 -18
Kansas 62 108 119 128 175 192 172 149 47 -21
Kentucky 394 519 560 447 529 522 486 444 19 -16
Louisiana 425 574 644 725 779 756 670 575 7 -26
Maine 101 140 114 84 133 136 131 124 64 -11
Maryland 255 346 287 249 342 390 375 354 51 -5
Massachusetts 579 437 337 314 429 442 374 340 41 -23
Michigan 635 942 985 874 994 1,031 935 839 17 -18
Minnesota 158 202 228 245 309 318 295 260 29 -18
Mississippi 333 514 495 493 536 511 457 399 9 -26
Missouri 221 378 362 404 549 593 554 478 46 -19
Montana 27 47 58 56 66 71 71 67 26 -5
Nebraska 40 75 94 92 107 111 102 97 23 -14
Nevada 18 37 32 41 80 97 97 82 126 -12
New Hampshire 44 54 28 22 58 62 53 46 176 -24
New Jersey 493 608 464 353 494 545 540 490 50 -8
New Mexico 118 183 157 151 221 244 235 205 62 -16
New York 1,646 1,851 1,834 1,463 1,885 2,154 2,099 1,914 40 -6
North Carolina 428 605 474 390 597 630 631 586 61 -6
North Dakota 15 29 33 39 46 45 40 38 25 -22
Ohio 803 976 1,133 1,068 1,251 1,245 1,045 874 19 -31
Oklahoma 158 206 263 261 346 376 354 322 42 -13
Oregon 153 232 228 213 265 286 288 259 33 -9
Pennsylvania 843 1,071 1,032 916 1,137 1,208 1,124 1,009 29 -15
Puerto Rico 1,472 1,805 1,480 1,460 1,480 1,410 1,330 e 1,306 -1 -9
Rhode Island 79 88 69 57 87 94 91 85 62 -8
South Carolina 280 443 373 272 369 385 358 349 45 -11
South Dakota 26 46 48 50 55 53 49 47 11 -16
Tennessee 392 677 518 500 702 735 638 586 55 -24
Texas 823 1,226 1,263 1,634 2,454 2,726 2,372 2,034 63 -23
Utah 36 65 75 95 123 128 110 98 40 -26
Vermont 46 48 44 34 54 65 56 53 70 -9
Virgin Islands 25 34 32 16 16 20 31 20 8 15
Virginia 240 432 360 333 495 547 538 476 61 -11
Washington 212 271 281 321 431 468 476 442 44 -5
West Virginia 199 252 278 259 310 321 300 287 24 -11
Wisconsin 175 269 363 291 334 330 283 232 16 -31
Wyoming 9 15 27 27 33 34 33 29 25 -16

Table A-19. Food Stamp Recipiency Rates by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1977 – 1997

[In percent]

  1977 1981 1985 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997 Percent Change
1989-93 1993-97

Note: Recipiency rate refers to the average monthly number of food stamp recipients in each State during the particular fiscal year expressed as a percent of the total resident population as of July 1 of that year. The numerator is from Table A-18.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, unpublished data from the National Data Bank and U.S. Bureau of the Census, (Resident population by state available online at http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/).

Alabama 8.4 15.4 14.8 10.8 13.3 12.9 11.9 10.9 24 -19
Alaska 2.7 7.7 4.1 4.8 6.4 7.6 7.6 7.4 51 3
Arizona 5.8 7.5 6.5 7.3 11.8 12.3 9.6 8.0 68 -35
Arkansas 9.7 13.3 10.9 9.7 11.6 11.5 10.9 10.5 21 -10
California 6.0 6.6 6.1 6.1 8.3 10.1 9.9 8.7 51 -5
Colorado 5.5 5.9 5.3 6.5 7.5 7.3 6.4 5.6 19 -27
Connecticut 5.8 5.6 4.5 3.5 6.2 6.8 6.8 6.4 90 -3
Delaware 4.5 9.3 6.5 4.5 7.3 8.4 8.0 7.3 84 -12
Dist. of Columbia 14.5 15.9 11.4 9.4 14.1 16.0 17.2 17.1 60 14
Florida 8.2 9.4 5.5 5.3 10.4 10.6 9.5 8.1 107 -26
Georgia 8.8 11.7 9.5 7.6 11.2 11.8 10.8 9.3 55 -20
Hawaii 11.8 10.6 9.5 7.1 8.2 9.8 11.0 10.7 24 21
Idaho 3.8 6.7 5.9 6.1 6.7 7.2 6.7 5.8 17 -19
Illinois 8.1 8.6 9.7 8.7 10.0 10.1 9.3 8.6 16 -15
Indiana 3.6 7.4 7.4 5.2 7.9 9.0 6.7 5.9 69 -32
Iowa 3.7 5.6 7.2 6.1 6.9 6.9 6.2 5.7 15 -19
Kansas 2.7 4.5 4.9 5.2 6.9 7.5 6.7 5.7 44 -23
Kentucky 11.0 14.2 15.2 12.1 14.1 13.7 12.5 11.4 15 -19
Louisiana 10.6 13.4 14.6 17.0 18.2 17.6 15.4 13.2 7 -27
Maine 9.2 12.4 9.8 6.9 10.7 11.0 10.6 10.0 62 -11
Maryland 6.1 8.1 6.5 5.3 7.0 7.8 7.4 7.0 44 -8
Massachusetts 10.1 7.6 5.7 5.2 7.2 7.3 6.1 5.5 41 -25
Michigan 6.9 10.2 10.8 9.4 10.5 10.8 9.6 8.6 14 -20
Minnesota 4.0 4.9 5.5 5.7 6.9 7.0 6.3 5.6 24 -21
Mississippi 13.5 20.3 19.1 19.1 20.5 19.2 16.9 14.6 6 -28
Missouri 4.5 7.7 7.2 7.9 10.6 11.2 10.3 8.8 42 -22
Montana 3.6 5.9 7.1 7.0 8.1 8.3 8.1 7.6 20 -9
Nebraska 2.6 4.7 5.9 5.9 6.7 6.8 6.2 5.9 20 -17
Nevada 2.7 4.4 3.4 3.6 6.0 6.6 6.0 4.9 86 -27
New Hampshire 5.1 5.8 2.8 2.0 5.2 5.4 4.6 3.9 172 -27
New Jersey 6.7 8.2 6.1 4.6 6.3 6.9 6.8 6.1 48 -10
New Mexico 9.7 13.7 10.9 10.0 14.0 14.7 13.7 11.8 51 -22
New York 9.2 10.5 10.3 8.1 10.4 11.9 11.6 10.6 39 -6
North Carolina 7.5 10.2 7.6 5.9 8.7 8.9 8.6 7.9 52 -12
North Dakota 2.4 4.4 4.9 6.0 7.2 7.1 6.2 5.9 27 -22
Ohio 7.5 9.1 10.6 9.9 11.4 11.2 9.4 7.8 16 -32
Oklahoma 5.5 6.7 8.0 8.3 10.8 11.6 10.7 9.7 39 -15
Oregon 6.3 8.7 8.5 7.6 8.9 9.3 9.0 8.0 22 -14
Pennsylvania 7.1 9.0 8.8 7.7 9.5 10.0 9.3 8.4 28 -15
Rhode Island 8.3 9.3 7.2 5.7 8.7 9.4 9.2 8.6 63 -7
South Carolina 9.4 13.9 11.3 7.9 10.3 10.5 9.6 9.3 38 -15
South Dakota 3.8 6.6 6.9 7.2 7.6 7.3 6.6 6.4 7 -18
Tennessee 8.9 14.6 11.0 10.3 14.0 14.2 12.0 10.9 48 -28
Texas 6.2 8.3 7.8 9.7 13.9 14.8 12.4 10.5 51 -29
Utah 2.7 4.3 4.6 5.6 6.8 6.6 5.5 4.8 27 -32
Vermont 9.4 9.4 8.2 6.1 9.4 11.1 9.6 9.0 65 -11
Virginia 4.6 7.9 6.3 5.4 7.8 8.4 8.1 7.1 52 -15
Washington 5.6 6.4 6.4 6.8 8.4 8.8 8.6 7.9 30 -11
West Virginia 10.4 12.9 14.6 14.3 17.1 17.7 16.5 15.8 24 -11
Wisconsin 3.8 5.7 7.6 6.0 6.7 6.5 5.5 4.5 12 -33
Wyoming 2.1 3.0 5.4 6.0 7.2 7.2 6.9 6.0 23 -18
United States 7.1 9.0 8.3 7.6 9.9 10.5 9.6 8.5 37 -18

Supplemental Security Income

The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Program is a means tested, federally administered income assistance program authorized by title XVI of the Social Security Act. Established in 1972 (Public Law 92-603) and begun in 1974, SSI provides monthly cash payments in accordance with uniform, nationwide eligibility requirements to needy aged, blind and disabled persons. To qualify for SSI payments, a person must satisfy the program criteria for age, blindness or disability. Children may qualify for SSI if they are under age 18, unmarried, and meet the applicable SSI disability or blindness, income and resource requirements. Individuals and couples are eligible for SSI if their countable incomes fall below the Federal maximum monthly SSI benefit levels, which were $484 for an individual and $726 for a couple in fiscal year 1997. SSI eligibility is restricted to qualified persons who have countable resources/assets of not more than $2,000, or $3,000 for a couple.

SSI law requires that SSI applicants file for all other money benefits for which they may be entitled. Since its inception, SSI has been viewed as the “program of last resort”-- after evaluating all other income, SSI pays what is necessary to bring an individual to the statutorily prescribed income “floor.” (The Social Security Administration, which administers the SSI program, works with recipients and helps them get any other benefits for which they are eligible.) As of December 1996, 37 percent of all SSI recipients also received Social Security benefits; Social Security benefits are the single highest source of income for SSI recipients.

No individual could receive both SSI payments and AFDC benefits; if eligible for both, the individual was required to choose which benefit to receive. Generally, the AFDC agency encouraged individuals to file for SSI and, once the SSI payments had started, the individual was removed from the AFDC filing unit. The PRWORA does not specifically prohibit an individual’s receipt of both TANF benefits and SSI; states have complete authority to set TANF eligibility standards and benefit levels.

Except in California, which converted food stamp benefits to cash that is included in the State supplementary payment, SSI recipients may be eligible to receive food stamps. If all household members receive SSI, they do not need to meet the Food Stamp Program financial eligibility standards to participate in the program because they are categorically eligible. If SSI beneficiaries live in households where other household members do not receive SSI benefits, the household must meet the net income eligibility standard of the Food Stamp Program to be eligible for food stamp benefits.

Recent Legislative Changes. Several legislative changes made in the 104th Congress are likely to affect Supplemental Security Income (SSI) participation and expenditures. Public Law 104-121, the Contract with America Advancement Act of 1996, prohibits SSI eligibility to individuals whose drug addiction and/or alcoholism (DAA) is a contributing factor material to the finding of disability. This provision applied to individuals who filed for benefits on or after the date of enactment (March 29, 1996) and to individuals whose claims were finally adjudicated on or after the date of enactment. It applied to current beneficiaries on January 1, 1997.

The PRWORA made several changes designed to maintain the SSI program’s goal of providing benefits for severely disabled children while preventing children without serious impairments from receiving benefits. First, the act replaced the former law “comparable severity” test with a new definition of childhood disability based on a medically determinable physical or mental impairment. Second, it discontinued use of the Individualized Functional Assessment (IFA) which authorized subjective judgment to determine children’s eligibility for SSI. Third, it eliminated references to “maladaptive behavior” in the Listings of Impairments (among medical criteria for evaluation of mental and emotional disorders in the domain of personal/behavioral function). The latter two provisions were effective for all new and pending applications upon enactment (August 22, 1996). Current beneficiaries receiving benefits due to an IFA or maladaptive behavior listing received notice no later than January 1, 1997, that their benefits might end when their case is redetermined. All currently receiving benefits are subject to redetermination using the new eligibility criteria by February 28, 1998 (per P.L. 105-33, enacted August 5, 1997).

Title IV of PRWORA also made significant changes in the eligibility of noncitizens for SSI benefits. Essentially, qualified aliens (including legal immigrants) are barred from SSI. Some of the restrictions were subsequently moderated, most notably by the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (Public Law 105-33), which grandfathered immigrants who were receiving SSI at the time of enactment of the PRWORA.

SSI Program Data. The following six tables and two figures provide SSI program data:

  • Tables A-20 through A-23 present national caseload and expenditure trend data on the SSI program;
  • Figures A-6 and A-7 present some demographic characteristics of the SSI caseload; and
  • Tables A-24 through A-26 present some state-by-state trend data on the SSI program through fiscal year 1996.

Table A-20 presents information on the number of persons receiving SSI payments in December of each year from 1974 through 1997. Data on the total number of SSI recipients are shown, as well as recipients by eligibility category (aged, blind and disabled) and by type of recipient (child, adult age 18-64, and adult age 65 or older). From 1990 to 1994, growth in the total number of beneficiaries averaged 370 thousand per year, almost 6.5 percent per year. The increase slowed in 1995 and 1996, with the number of recipients peaking at 6.6 million beneficiaries in December 1996. In 1997 growth stopped and the number of recipients declined slightly, to 6.5 million in December 1997.

Recent trends in the changing composition of the SSI caseload continued through 1997, as shown in Table A-22. The number of aged beneficiaries continued to decline, both as an absolute number (from a high of 2.3 million persons in December 1975 to less than 1.4 million in December 1997) and as a proportion of the SSI caseload. The number of aged, as a percentage of all SSI participants, has dropped steadily, from 60.6 percent in December 1974 to 31.6 percent in December 1997. This relative decline is a result of very little change in the number of aged participants between December 1990 and December 1997 while the number of persons 18 to 64 receiving benefits grew by 45 percent during the same time period. Moreover, the number of children increased by 177 percent, from 340 thousand to 943 thousand, bringing them from 7 percent of the SSI caseload in 1990 to 15 percent in 1997. Many analysts attribute this growth to outreach activities, the Supreme Court decision in the Zebley case4, expansion of the medical impairment category, and reduction in reviews of continuing eligibility.

Table A-20. Number of Persons Receiving Federally Administered SSI Payments 1974 – 1997

[In thousands]

Date Total Eligibility Category Type of Recipient
Aged Blind and Disabled Children1 Adults
Total Blind Disabled Age 18-64 65 or Older

1 Includes students 18-21; there were 50,661 students 18-21 in December 1997.

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, (Data available online at http://www.ssa.gov/statistics/ores_home.html).

Dec 1974 3,996 2,286 1,710 75 1,636 71 1,503 2,422
Dec 1975 4,314 2,307 2,007 74 1,933 128 1,678 2,508
Dec 1976 4,236 2,148 2,088 76 2,012 153 1,686 2,397
Dec 1977 4,238 2,051 2,187 77 2,109 175 1,709 2,353
Dec 1978 4,217 1,968 2,249 77 2,172 197 1,716 2,304
Dec 1979 4,150 1,872 2,278 77 2,201 212 1,692 2,246
Dec 1980 4,142 1,808 2,334 78 2,256 229 1,693 2,221
Dec 1981 4,019 1,678 2,341 79 2,262 230 1,668 2,121
Dec 1982 3,858 1,549 2,309 77 2,231 229 1,618 2,011
Dec 1983 3,901 1,515 2,386 79 2,307 236 1,662 2,003
Dec 1984 4,029 1,530 2,499 81 2,419 249 1,743 2,037
Dec 1985 4,138 1,504 2,634 82 2,551 265 1,841 2,031
Dec 1986 4,269 1,473 2,796 83 2,713 280 1,972 2,018
Dec 1987 4,385 1,455 2,930 83 2,846 289 2,081 2,015
Dec 1988 4,464 1,433 3,030 83 2,948 290 2,168 2,006
Dec 1989 4,593 1,439 3,154 83 3,071 296 2,271 2,026
Dec 1990 4,817 1,454 3,363 84 3,279 340 2,418 2,059
Dec 1991 5,118 1,465 3,654 85 3,569 439 2,600 2,080
Dec 1992 5,566 1,471 4,095 85 4,010 624 2,843 2,100
Dec 1993 5,984 1,475 4,509 85 4,424 771 3,101 2,113
Dec 1994 6,296 1,466 4,830 85 4,745 893 3,284 2,119
Dec 1995 6,514 1,446 5,068 84 4,984 974 3,425 2,115
Dec 1996 6,614 1,413 5,201 82 5,119 1,018 3,506 2,090
Dec 1997 6,495 1,362 5,133 81 5,052 943 3,499 2,054

Table A-21. Federal and State SSI Benefit Payments, 1974 – 1997 1

[In millions of current and 1997 dollars]

Calender Year Total Benefits Federal Payments State Supplementation Administrative Costs
(fiscal year)
19972 Dollars Current Dollars Total Federally Administered State Administered

1 Payments and adjustments during the respective year but not necessarily accrued for that year.

2 Data adjusted for inflation by ASPE using the CPI-U-X1.

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of SSI, and Office of Budget, Social Security Bulletin, Annual Statistical Supplement, 1998 (available online at http://www.ssa.gov/statistics/ores_home.html).

1974 $16,222 $5,246 $3,833 $1,413 $1,264 $149 $285
1975 16,787 5,878 4,314 1,565 1,403 162 399
1976 16,390 6,066 4,512 1,554 1,388 166 500
1977 16,014 6,306 4,703 1,603 1,431 172 NA
1978 15,579 6,552 4,881 1,671 1,491 180 539
1979 15,345 7,075 5,279 1,797 1,590 207 610
1980 15,486 7,941 5,866 2,074 1,848 226 668
1981 15,307 8,593 6,518 2,076 1,839 237 718
1982 15,078 8,981 6,907 2,074 1,798 276 779
1983 15,154 9,404 7,423 1,982 1,711 270 830
1984 16,022 10,372 8,281 2,091 1,792 299 864
1985 16,498 11,060 8,777 2,283 1,973 311 953
1986 17,692 12,081 9,498 2,583 2,243 340 1,022
1987 18,298 12,951 10,029 2,922 2,563 359 976
1988 18,704 13,786 10,734 3,052 2,671 381 975
1989 19,389 14,980 11,606 3,374 2,955 419 1,051
1990 20,383 16,599 12,894 3,705 3,239 466 1,075
1991 21,829 18,524 14,765 3,759 3,231 529 1,257
1992 25,433 22,233 18,247 3,986 3,435 550 1,538
1993 27,276 24,557 20,722 3,835 3,270 566 1,467
1994 28,024 25,877 22,175 3,701 3,116 585 1,775
1995 29,096 27,628 23,919 3,708 3,118 590 1,973
1996 29,453 28,792 25,265 3,527 2,988 539 1,949
1997 29,052 29,052 25,457 3,595 2,913 682 2,055

Table A-22. Average Monthly SSI Benefit Payments, 1974 – 1997

Calender Year Total1 Federal Payments State Supplementation
1997 Dollars Current Dollars Total Federally Administered State Administered
1974 $440 $135 $108 $64 $71 $35
1975 313 112 92 66 69 45
1980 297 158 133 89 91 76
1984 323 211 187 93 93 93
1985 324 219 193 99 99 102
1986 338 232 202 107 108 101
1987 338 242 208 117 118 110
1988 339 253 219 118 118 118
1989 342 267 230 126 126 127
1990 341 283 244 132 131 136
1991 347 297 260 125 122 143
1992 373 328 292 124 121 147
1993 373 337 306 112 107 150
1994 364 338 310 105 99 152
1995 368 350 322 110 103 164
1996 366 359 332 108 103 145
1997 369 369 342 99 102 86
Calender Year Number of PersonsReceiving Payments (in thousands)
Total Federal State Supplementation
Total Federally Administered State Administered

1 Total is a weighted average of the Federal plus State average benefit, the Federal-only average benefit, and Stateonly
average benefit.

Note: The numerators for these averages are given in Table A-21. Averages were computed by DHHS. Data adjusted for inflation using the monthly values of the CPI-U-X1 index.

Source: Number of persons receiving payments obtained from Social Security Administration, Office of SSI, and Office of Budget.

Jan1974 3,249 2,956 1,839 1,480 358
Dec1975 4,360 3,893 1,987 1,684 303
Dec1980 4,194 3,682 1,934 1,685 249
Dec1984 4,094 3,699 1,875 1,607 268
Dec1985 4,200 3,799 1,916 1,661 255
Dec1986 4,347 3,922 2,003 1,723 279
Dec1987 4,458 4,019 2,079 1,807 272
Dec1988 4,541 4,089 2,155 1,885 270
Dec1989 4,673 4,206 2,224 1,950 275
Dec1990 4,888 4,412 2,344 2,058 286
Dec1991 5,200 4,730 2,512 2,204 308
Dec1992 5,647 5,202 2,684 2,372 313
Dec1993 6,065 5,636 2,850 2,536 314
Dec1994 6,377 5,965 2,950 2,628 322
Dec1995 6,576 6,194 2,817 2,518 300
Dec1996 6,677 6,326 2,732 2,421 310
Dec1997 6,565 6,212 3,029 2,372 657

Table A-23. SSI Participation Rates, 1974 - 1997

[In percent]

  All Recipients as a Percent Of Total Population1 Child Recipients
as a Percent of All Children1
Elderly Recipients (Persons 65 & Older) as a Percent of
All Persons 65 & Older1 All Elderly Poor2 Pretransfer Elderly Poor3

1 Population numbers used for the denominators are Census resident population estimates adjusted to the December date by averaging the July 1 population of the current year with the July 1 population of the following year; see Current Population Reports, Series P25-1106.

2 For the number of persons (65 years of age and older living in poverty) used as the denominator, see Current Population Reports, Series P60-198.

3 The pretransfer poverty population used as the denominator is the number of all elderly persons living in elderly-only units whose income (cash income plus social insurance plus Social Security but before taxes and means-tested transfers) falls below the appropriate poverty threshold. See Appendix J, Table 20, 1992 Green Book; data for subsequent years are unpublished Congressional Budget Office tabulations.

Notes: Numerators for these ratios are from Table A-20. Rates computed by DHHS.

Source: 1994 Green Book and U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1996," Current Population Reports, Series P60-198, and earlier years, (Available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html).

Dec 1974 1.9 0.1 10.8 78.5 NA
Dec 1975 2.0 0.2 10.9 75.6 NA
Dec 1976 1.9 0.2 10.2 72.4 NA
Dec 1977 1.9 0.3 9.7 74.1 NA
Dec 1978 1.9 0.3 9.3 71.5 NA
Dec 1979 1.8 0.3 8.8 61.3 66.8
Dec 1980 1.8 0.4 8.6 57.5 64.7
Dec 1981 1.7 0.4 8.0 55.0 63.3
Dec 1982 1.7 0.4 7.4 53.6 62.3
Dec 1983 1.7 0.4 7.3 55.2 61.9
Dec 1984 1.7 0.4 7.2 61.2 66.3
Dec 1985 1.7 0.4 7.1 58.7 64.5
Dec 1986 1.8 0.4 6.9 57.9 63.4
Dec 1987 1.8 0.5 6.7 56.5 64.7
Dec 1988 1.8 0.5 6.6 57.6 64.3
Dec 1989 1.9 0.5 6.5 60.3 64.6
Dec 1990 1.9 0.5 6.5 56.3 63.3
Dec 1991 2.0 0.7 6.5 55.0 61.1
Dec 1992 2.2 0.9 6.5 53.5 59.8
Dec 1993 2.3 1.1 6.4 56.3 63.3
Dec 1994 2.4 1.3 6.4 57.9 65.6
Dec 1995 2.5 1.4 6.4 63.7 71.4
Dec 1996 2.5 1.5 6.2 61.0 69.3
Dec 1997 2.4 1.3 6.0 60.8 NA

Figure A-6. SSI Recipients by Age, 1974 – 1997

Figure A-6. SSI Recipients by Age, 1974 – 1997

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, (Data available online at http://www.ssa.gov/statistics/ores_home.html).


  • The proportion of persons receiving SSI who are 65 years of age or older (as a percent of all SSI recipients) has decreased steadily from a high of 61 percent in 1974 to a low of 32 percent in 1997 essentially cutting the proportion of elderly recipients in half. The actual number who are 65 or older has declined from 2.5 million in 1975 to a little less than 2.1 million today.
  • The percentage of child recipients increased two and one half times during the 1970s, going from 2 percent in 1974 to 5 percent by the end of the decade. During the 1980s, it remained fairly constant at about 6 percent. In the 1990s, the share of child recipients increased rapidly, more than doubling to 15 percent.
  • The percentage of persons receiving SSI between the ages of 18 and 64 has increased steadily over time, rising from 38 percent in 1974 to 54 percent in 1997.

Figure A-7. Number and Percentage Distribution of Persons Age 15 or Older with Supplemental Security Income, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1985 & 1995

(In thousands)

Figure A-7. Number and Percentage Distribution of Persons Age 15 or Older with Supplemental Security Income, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1985 & 1995

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Money Income in the United States: 1995," Current Population Reports, Series P60-193 and earlier years.


Table A-24. Total SSI Payments, Federal SSI Payments And State Supplementary Payments, Fiscal 1997

(In Thousands)

State Total1 Total Federal2 Federal SSI2 State Supplementation
Federally Administered2 State Administrated
    Other: N. Mariana Islands 2,518 2,518 2,518
Total $29,052,091 $28,370,538 $25,457,355 $2,913,281 $681,521

1 Includes $463,000 for unknown States. Federal SSI includes $643,000 for unknown States.

2 The sum of federally administered State supplementation payments exceeds the total by $214,000. This represents refunds of State payments that had not yet been credited to States.

3 Data estimated.

4 Represents recovered State payments. Administration changed from Federal to State: Maine in April 1996, Wisconsin in January 1996.

Source: Social Security Administration, Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics, Social Security Bulletin, Annual Statistical Supplement, 1998.

Alabama 634,096 633,109 633,109 987
Alaska 43,052 30,080 30,080 12,972 3
Arizona 316,054 315,742 315,742 312
Arkansas 335,331 335,331 335,331
California 5,512,788 5,512,788 3,593,495 1,919,293
Colorado 296,154 229,554 229,554 66,600
Connecticut 288,158 195,349 195,349 92,809
Delaware 45,500 45,500 44,626 874
District of Columbia 84,906 84,906 82,163 2,743
Florida 1,467,042 1,448,658 1,448,650 8 18,384
Georgia 744,478 744,475 744,478
Hawaii 88,669 88,669 77,363 11,306
Idaho 78,965 68,549 68,549 10,416
Illinois 1,174,134 1,144,974 1,144,974 29,160
Indiana 373,244 369,668 369,668 3,576
Iowa 164,641 153,316 150,311 3,005 11,325
Kansas 146,264 146,264 146,264
Kentucky 692,039 676,463 676,463 15,576
Louisiana 728,659 728,116 728,116 543
Maine 100,768 100,064 100,122 -58 4 704
Maryland 370,584 363,907 363,896 11 6,677
Massachusetts 740,252 740,252 579,728 160,524
Michigan 949,061 945,255 917,569 27,686 3,806
Minnesota 306,218 252,921 252,921 53,297 3
Mississippi 517,694 517,694 517,694
Missouri 477,882 452,689 452,689 25,193
Montana 54,344 54,344 53,512 832
Nebraska 87,418 81,219 81,219 6,199
Nevada 88,176 88,176 83,915 4,261
New Hampshire 54,651 43,563 43,563 11,088
New Jersey 627,617 627,617 550,794 76,823
New Mexico 177,662 177,394 177,394 268
New York 2,931,527 2,931,527 2,408,404 523,123
North Carolina 791,473 698,905 698,905 92,568
North Dakota 31,722 29,806 29,806 1,916 3
Ohio 1,111,237 1,111,237 1,111,235 2
Oklahoma 320,881 283,469 283,469 37,412
Oregon 218,164 197,990 197,990 20,174 3
Pennsylvania 1,235,472 1,235,472 1,109,806 125,666
Rhode Island 109,271 109,271 89,628 19,643
South Carolina 423,542 410,499 410,499 13,043
South Dakota 50,840 48,936 48,929 7 1,904
Tennessee 657,844 657,844 657,844
Texas 1,491,309 1,491,309 1,491,309
Utah 85,860 85,860 85,801 59
Vermont 50,122 50,122 40,553 9,569
Virginia 526,385 507,128 507,128 19,257
Washington 432,129 431,886 403,459 28,427 243
West Virginia 296,853 296,853 296,853
Wisconsin 494,557 370,147 370,555 -408 4 124,410
Wyoming 23,421 22,724 22,724 697

Table A-25. SSI Recipiency Rates by State And Program Type for 1979 and 1997

[In percent]

  Total Recipiency Rate Rate for Adults 18-84 Rate for Adults 65 & Over
1979 1997 Percent Change 1979-97 1979 1997 Percent Change 1979-97 1979 1997 Percent Change 1979-97
Total 1.85 2.43 31.2 1.26 2.17 72.3 8.98 6.03 -32.9

Note: Recipiency rates are the ratios of the number of SSI recipients (in the respective age groups) as of the month of December to the population in the respective age group as of the the month of July; calculations by DHHS.

Source: Social Security Administration and U.S. Bureau of the Census, (Resident population by state available online at http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/).

Alabama 3.55 3.78 6.5 1.83 3.20 74.9 21.01 9.28 -55.8
Alaska 0.77 1.22 58.7 0.54 1.22 126.4 14.04 5.45 -61.2
Arizona 1.11 1.68 51.0 0.89 1.62 82.4 4.98 3.47 -30.3
Arkansas 3.50 3.59 2.5 1.87 3.07 64.4 17.05 8.12 -52.4
California 3.02 3.17 5.0 2.05 2.49 21.7 16.43 12.67 -22.9
Colorado 1.10 1.45 31.9 0.77 1.37 77.5 6.68 3.55 -46.9
Connecticut 0.75 1.41 88.3 0.63 1.45 130.5 2.70 2.53 -6.4
Delaware 1.19 1.56 31.3 0.94 1.41 50.5 5.43 2.69 -50.5
District of Columbia 2.28 3.75 64.5 1.92 3.32 72.9 8.56 7.48 -12.6
Florida 1.78 2.41 35.4 1.14 1.91 67.9 6.21 4.92 -20.8
Georgia 2.87 2.66 -7.2 1.89 2.24 18.7 17.73 8.84 -50.2
Hawaii 1.05 1.64 56.0 0.69 1.27 84.7 7.57 5.84 -22.9
Idaho 0.79 1.41 78.0 0.64 1.50 134.8 3.78 2.21 -41.5
Illinois 1.08 2.12 96.7 0.95 2.13 124.1 4.25 3.89 -8.5
Indiana 0.75 1.51 101.3 0.61 1.56 155.6 3.32 1.99 -40.2
Iowa 0.89 1.43 60.5 0.62 1.55 150.0 3.50 2.00 -42.9
Kansas 0.89 1.40 57.2 0.63 1.45 129.7 3.47 2.04 -41.2
Kentucky 2.54 4.29 69.0 1.79 4.33 141.7 12.54 8.16 -34.9
Louisiana 3.35 4.03 20.3 2.03 3.56 75.3 20.14 9.87 -51.0
Maine 1.95 2.27 16.4 1.39 2.44 75.4 8.58 3.91 -54.4
Maryland 1.15 1.67 45.3 0.94 1.46 55.1 5.40 4.29 -20.5
Massachusetts 2.24 2.75 22.9 1.28 2.68 109.1 10.80 5.88 -45.5
Michigan 1.26 2.14 69.8 1.07 2.20 106.0 5.85 3.18 -45.6
Minnesota 0.81 1.34 65.0 0.55 1.33 141.1 3.71 2.59 -30.1
Mississippi 4.49 4.98 10.9 2.42 4.24 75.4 26.01 13.65 -47.5
Missouri 1.76 2.08 18.3 1.10 2.11 91.7 7.89 3.55 -55.0
Montana 0.89 1.56 75.8 0.72 1.69 135.3 3.79 2.32 -38.9
Nebraska 0.88 1.27 44.5 0.64 1.31 104.3 3.38 1.97 -41.7
Nevada 0.84 1.33 58.0 0.53 1.16 118.9 5.87 3.48 -40.8
New Hampshire 0.58 0.95 63.2 0.44 1.00 127.5 2.53 1.44 -42.9
New Jersey 1.14 1.79 57.0 0.86 1.50 74.1 4.69 4.48 -4.4
New Mexico 1.97 2.62 33.1 1.37 2.35 71.2 12.36 7.88 -36.2
New York 2.12 3.30 55.5 1.59 2.78 75.1 8.26 8.88 7.4
North Carolina 2.40 2.60 8.4 1.58 2.14 35.4 13.60 7.04 -48.3
North Dakota 0.99 1.34 35.8 0.57 1.30 128.8 5.05 2.74 -45.7
Ohio 1.11 2.21 98.9 0.99 2.35 137.6 4.17 2.60 -37.6
Oklahoma 2.32 2.22 -4.1 1.33 2.05 54.4 11.62 4.93 -57.6
Oregon 0.86 1.48 71.9 0.70 1.52 117.8 3.28 2.57 -21.6
Pennsylvania 1.40 2.24 60.1 1.12 2.24 100.2 4.96 3.52 -29.1
Rhode Island 1.59 2.56 61.2 1.08 2.53 133.8 6.43 4.79 -25.5
South Carolina 2.69 2.92 8.5 1.78 2.47 38.9 16.96 7.75 -54.3
South Dakota 1.14 1.79 56.6 0.72 1.69 135.0 4.99 3.35 -32.8
Tennessee 2.86 3.20 11.9 1.87 2.98 59.4 14.77 7.45 -49.6
Texas 1.89 2.09 10.8 0.95 1.61 69.1 12.69 8.46 -33.4
Utah 0.55 0.99 79.3 0.51 1.08 111.5 3.03 1.98 -34.7
Vermont 1.77 2.16 22.0 1.31 2.19 67.0 8.08 4.64 -42.6
Virginia 1.50 1.94 29.6 1.02 1.61 57.7 8.52 5.37 -37.0
Washington 1.16 1.68 45.2 0.98 1.74 77.9 4.83 3.38 -30.1
West Virginia 2.13 3.82 79.3 1.86 4.19 125.1 7.95 5.21 -34.5
Wisconsin 1.44 1.75 21.7 0.96 1.73 80.6 6.54 2.65 -59.4
Wyoming 0.42 1.20 185.9 0.29 1.29 346.1 2.74 1.79 -34.5

Table A-26. SSI Recipiency Rates by State, Selected Fiscal Years 1975 – 1997

[In percent]

  1975 1985 1990 1992 19942 19962 19972
Total1 2.00 1.74 1.94 2.11 2.42 2.49 2.43

1 The number of SSI recipients used to calculate the total recipiency rate includes a certain number of recipients whose State is unknown. For 1975, 1985, 1990, and 1992,, the numbers of unknown (in thousands) were 256, 14, 0, and 71 respectively.

2 For 1975-92 the percentages are calculated as the average number of monthly SSI recipients over the total population of each State in July of that year. For 1994-1997 the number of recipients is from the month of December; calculations by DHHS.

Source: Social Security Administration and Bureau of the Census, (Resident population by state available online at http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/).

Alabama 3.98 3.29 3.29 3.43 3.83 3.91 3.78
Alaska 0.81 0.65 0.84 0.90 1.05 1.21 1.22
Arizona 1.24 1.04 1.22 1.42 1.68 1.71 1.68
Arkansas 4.09 3.14 3.23 3.47 3.83 3.76 3.59
California 3.09 2.59 2.93 3.10 3.23 3.28 3.17
Colorado 1.37 0.93 1.14 1.29 1.49 1.50 1.45
Connecticut 0.76 0.83 0.98 1.10 1.30 1.41 1.41
Delaware 1.19 1.21 1.21 1.27 1.45 1.58 1.56
District of Columbia 2.23 2.51 2.67 3.00 3.48 3.73 3.75
Florida 1.86 1.62 1.71 1.90 2.27 2.45 2.41
Georgia 3.27 2.56 2.46 2.55 2.75 2.73 2.66
Hawaii 1.08 1.08 1.25 1.30 1.53 1.65 1.64
Idaho 1.06 0.84 1.03 1.21 1.39 1.46 1.41
Illinois 1.22 1.18 1.55 1.78 2.21 2.27 2.12
Indiana 0.83 0.87 1.09 1.26 1.49 1.55 1.51
Iowa 1.00 0.96 1.18 1.29 1.44 1.47 1.43
Kansas 1.05 0.87 0.99 1.14 1.39 1.49 1.40
Kentucky 2.83 2.65 3.11 3.42 4.07 4.38 4.29
Louisiana 3.90 2.87 3.15 3.49 4.14 4.19 4.03
Maine 2.31 1.89 1.93 2.03 2.38 2.24 2.27
Maryland 1.17 1.16 1.25 1.35 1.57 1.67 1.67
Massachusetts 2.30 1.91 1.98 2.23 2.60 2.72 2.75
Michigan 1.31 1.35 1.54 1.71 2.18 2.23 2.14
Minnesota 1.00 0.78 0.92 1.05 1.30 1.37 1.34
Mississippi 5.21 4.28 4.42 4.68 5.23 5.20 4.98
Missouri 2.10 1.58 1.66 1.83 2.08 2.17 2.08
Montana 1.12 0.92 1.25 1.38 1.55 1.62 1.56
Nebraska 1.06 0.88 0.99 1.09 1.26 1.32 1.27
Nevada 1.00 0.85 0.95 1.04 1.30 1.37 1.33
New Hampshire 0.67 0.62 0.62 0.71 0.85 0.95 0.95
New Jersey 1.11 1.23 1.36 1.52 1.78 1.82 1.79
New Mexico 2.29 1.83 2.08 2.25 2.58 2.67 2.62
New York 2.24 2.00 2.31 2.60 3.10 3.33 3.30
North Carolina 2.71 2.21 2.24 2.36 2.58 2.66 2.60
North Dakota 1.25 0.96 1.17 1.30 1.39 1.38 1.34
Ohio 1.22 1.19 1.44 1.63 2.12 2.27 2.21
Oklahoma 3.03 1.81 1.92 2.02 2.22 2.28 2.22
Oregon 1.12 0.95 1.11 1.24 1.47 1.51 1.48
Pennsylvania 1.24 1.39 1.60 1.77 2.09 2.24 2.24
Rhode Island 1.72 1.62 1.74 1.91 2.29 2.55 2.56
South Carolina 2.84 2.60 2.59 2.67 2.96 3.03 2.92
South Dakota 1.32 1.19 1.45 1.62 1.83 1.88 1.79
Tennessee 3.24 2.71 2.87 3.06 3.37 3.36 3.20
Texas 2.23 1.57 1.73 1.87 2.12 2.15 2.09
Utah 0.76 0.53 0.73 0.84 1.04 1.05 0.99
Vermont 1.93 1.76 1.79 1.99 2.19 2.19 2.16
Virginia 1.53 1.49 1.54 1.67 1.91 2.00 1.94
Washington 1.46 1.09 1.27 1.39 1.64 1.71 1.68
West Virginia 2.37 2.24 2.63 2.91 3.53 3.82 3.82
Wisconsin 1.44 1.50 1.75 1.88 2.16 1.84 1.75
Wyoming 0.67 0.45 0.76 0.92 1.16 1.22 1.20

1 States also have the option of continuing TANF benefits for immigrants who arrived before the bill’s enactment. Only Alabama, Mississippi and South Carolina have indicated that they will not be continuing benefits for these aliens.

2 Alternative programs are offered in Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa.

3 Some of the decline in food stamp participation can be attributed to eligibility changes made in the 1996 welfare law, most notably the elimination of eligibility for most legal immigrants and for many childless adults aged 18-50. By April 1, 1997, many states began removing legal immigrants who were receiving food stamps on August 22, 1996. Most states removed at least a portion of the childless 18-50 year olds on or around March 1, 1997.

4 On February 20, 1990, the Supreme Court ruled that the individual functional assessment (or a residual functional capacity assessment) applied to adults whose condition did not meet or equal a listing of medical impairments to determine eligibility should also be applied to children whose condition did not meet or equal the medical listing of impairments. A GAO study estimated that 87,000 children were added to the SSI caseload after the individual functional assessments for children were initiated.

Appendix B. Poverty Data

Figure B-1. The Poverty Gap 1 and Reductions in the Gap from Cash and Non-Cash Transfers for All Persons, 1979 - 1996

Figure B-1. The Poverty Gap and Reductions in the Gap from Cash and Non-Cash Transfers for All Persons, 1979 - 1996

1 The poverty gap denotes the amount of funds needed to bring all those below poverty up to the poverty threshold; as measured here the gap is the difference between the poverty threshold and cash income plus all social insurance (including social security benefits). Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is imputed. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.


Table B-1. The Poverty Gap 1 and Reductions in the Gap from Cash and Non-Cash Transfers for All Persons, 1979 - 1996

(In billions of constant 1996 dollars)

  1979 1982 1985 1988 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

1 The poverty gap denotes the amount of funds needed to bring all those below poverty up to the poverty threshold; as measured here the gap is the difference between the poverty threshold and cash income plus all social insurance (including social security benefits). Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is imputed. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.

Poverty Gap After:
Cash Income plus All Social Insurance 73.3 94.6 94.3 92.5 108.6 118.1 113.6 106.0 106.6
    Plus Means-Tested Cash Assistance 51.0 70.8 69.7 69.3 82.6 89.1 85.4 80.5 81.5
    Plus Food and Housing Benefits 39.9 56.2 55.1 53.8 63.1 68.1 65.4 62.4 63.3
    Plus EITC and Federal Taxes 40.5 58.2 57.5 54.9 63.6 67.5 63.7 60.1 60.4
Reduction in Poverty Gap Due To:
    Means-Tested Cash 22.3 23.7 24.6 23.2 26.1 29.0 28.1 25.5 25.0
    Food and Housing Benefits 11.1 14.6 14.6 15.5 19.4 21.0 20.0 18.2 18.3
    EITC and Federal Taxes -0.6 -2.0 -2.3 -1.1 -0.5 0.6 1.7 2.3 2.9
        Total Reductions 32.8 36.4 36.8 37.6 45.0 50.6 49.9 45.9 46.2
Percent Reduction in Gap Due To:
    Means-Tested Cash 30.5 25.1 26.1 25.1 24.0 24.6 24.8 24.0 23.5
    Food and Housing Benefits 15.1 15.5 15.5 16.7 17.9 17.8 17.6 17.1 17.1
    EITC and Federal Taxes -0.9 -2.1 -2.4 -1.2 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.2 2.7
        Total Reductions 44.7 38.5 39.1 40.6 41.4 42.9 44.0 43.3 43.3

Figure B-2. The Poverty Gap 1 and Reductions in the Gap from Cash & Non-Cash Transfers for Persons in Families with Children Under 18 Years, 1979 - 1996

(In billions of constant 1996 dollars)

Figure B-2. The Poverty Gap and Reductions in the Gap from Cash & Non-Cash Transfers for Persons in Families with Children Under 18 Years, 1979 - 1996

1 The poverty gap denotes the amount of funds needed to bring all those below poverty up to the poverty threshold; as measured here it is the difference between the poverty threshold and cash income plus all social insurance (including social security benefits). Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is imputed. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.


Table B-2. The Poverty Gap 1 and Reductions in the Gap from Cash & Non-Cash Transfers for Persons in Families with Children Under 18 Years, 1979 - 1996

(In billions of constant 1996 dollars)

  1979 1982 1985 1988 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

1 The poverty gap denotes the amount of funds needed to bring all those below poverty up to the poverty threshold; as measured here it is the difference between the poverty threshold and cash income plus all social insurance (including social security benefits). Food and housing benefits may be received either as cash or (more generally) as in-kind benefits in which case the market value of food and housing benefits is imputed. EITC refers to the refundable Earned Income Tax Credit which is always positive whereas Federal payroll and income taxes are a negative adjustment.

Source: Congressional Budget Office tabulations. Additional calculations by DHHS.

Poverty Gap After:
Cash Income plus All Social Insurance 43.0 58.3 56.4 54.8 64.1 70.0 65.8 58.5 58.4
    Plus Means-Tested Cash Assistance 27.7 41.6 39.5 39.1 46.7 50.0 46.7 41.7 42.9
    Plus Food and Housing Benefits 18.7 29.4 27.4 26.5 31.0 33.0 30.7 27.3 28.5
    Plus EITC and Federal Taxes 18.7 30.3 28.5 26.4 30.1 32.1 28.0 24.1 24.6
Reduction in Poverty Gap Due To:
    Means-Tested Cash 15.3 16.7 16.9 15.6 17.4 20.1 19.1 16.8 15.5
    Food and Housing Benefits 9.1 12.2 12.1 12.7 15.7 16.9 16.1 14.3 14.5
    EITC and Federal Taxes 0.0 -0.9 -1.0 0.1 0.9 0.9 2.7 3.2 3.9
        Total Reductions 24.4 28.0 28.0 28.4 33.9 38.0 37.9 34.4 33.9
Percent Reduction in Gap Due To:
    Means-Tested Cash 35.5 28.6 29.9 28.6 27.1 28.7 29.0 28.8 26.5
    Food and Housing Benefits 21.1 20.9 21.4 23.1 24.5 24.2 24.4 24.5 24.7
    EITC and Federal Taxes 0.0 -1.6 -1.8 0.2 1.3 1.4 4.1 5.5 6.7
        Total Reductions 56.6 48.0 49.6 51.8 52.9 54.2 57.5 58.8 58.0

Table B-3. Poverty Rate of Related Children Under 18 1 by State, Selected Years 1969 – 1997

[In percent]

  1969 1979 1983 1986 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997

1 Related children under 18 include own children, including stepchildren and adopted children, plus all other children in the household who are related to the householder by blood, marriage, or adoption.

Note: Due to limited sample size, rates for small states exhibit large sampling errors.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, for 1969 data see 1970 Census of Population, PC(S1)-105 "Supplementary Report", table 3; for 1979 data, see 1980 Census of Population, PC80-1-C1 "General Social and Economic Characteristics", table 245; subsequent years are unpublished March Current Population Survey data.

Alabama 29.3 23.6 31.0 38.0 23.5 23.9 21.9 21.2 25.3
Alaska 14.7 12.1 14.4 13.6 13.7 11.9 12.3 9.9 10.4
Arizona 17.9 16.5 27.7 20.1 23.9 23.9 24.6 30.5 25.1
Arkansas 31.3 23.4 23.9 27.6 24.6 23.9 19.3 22.0 26.7
California 12.7 15.2 23.0 19.5 20.1 24.6 27.0 25.0 25.0
Colorado 12.7 11.5 17.5 19.2 16.7 15.1 11.7 11.7 9.5
Connecticut 7.8 11.4 13.8 10.6 1.8 20.1 20.6 21.9 9.9
Delaware 12.3 15.6 12.0 21.2 14.2 12.2 11.3 14.0 16.2
Dist of Columbia 23.1 27.0 32.2 23.0 26.2 35.8 37.3 38.0 38.6
Florida 19.2 18.5 22.5 16.4 19.3 24.4 23.1 21.7 20.4
Georgia 24.1 21.1 23.8 23.8 24.2 27.4 19.4 19.9 24.8
Hawaii 10.3 13.0 20.7 14.7 17.7 19.0 11.9 15.9 20.7
Idaho 12.7 14.3 24.0 23.0 15.3 20.6 16.3 16.6 20.2
Illinois 11.0 14.9 21.4 20.7 20.5 23.6 18.9 17.8 15.8
Indiana 9.3 11.9 24.5 16.4 22.8 16.6 16.9 7.8 10.9
Iowa 10.1 11.5 22.8 16.6 13.7 16.5 14.1 11.0 11.3
Kansas 12.0 11.4 19.5 13.7 16.2 15.0 19.4 13.5 10.9
Kentucky 24.9 21.6 24.7 23.2 19.3 28.0 28.5 24.5 23.1
Louisiana 30.0 23.5 27.5 31.3 33.8 35.3 37.5 31.5 23.1
Maine 14.5 15.8 16.2 11.0 14.4 20.3 11.6 14.3 13.2
Maryland 11.5 12.5 13.3 11.8 13.1 18.7 16.8 16.3 13.4
Massachusetts 8.8 13.1 12.6 14.4 14.3 18.1 13.4 14.2 19.7
Michigan 9.4 13.3 25.3 21.5 19.9 20.7 21.2 16.7 14.2
Minnesota 9.5 10.2 14.8 19.0 17.0 18.6 13.8 11.6 15.9
Mississippi 41.3 30.4 37.8 33.5 31.1 32.9 29.5 29.5 21.5
Missouri 14.9 14.6 22.4 20.2 17.5 22.9 22.7 11.6 18.2
Montana 13.3 13.8 17.7 24.2 22.5 19.5 13.6 25.6 18.7
Nebraska 12.2 12.1 17.3 19.1 18.8 16.0 11.2 12.7 12.1
Nevada 9.1 10.0 10.3 14.4 14.6 19.2 16.5 9.4 16.8
New Hampshire 7.9 9.4 10.2 1.7 9.5 10.1 11.5 9.0 12.3
New Jersey 9.2 14.1 17.9 13.9 12.7 15.5 13.9 13.5 13.9
New Mexico 26.7 22.1 29.5 27.8 27.0 29.8 29.1 34.2 29.9
New York 12.7 19.0 23.3 20.6 19.4 25.8 25.8 25.0 25.2
North Carolina 23.6 18.3 19.8 19.1 15.6 24.3 20.4 17.9 16.3
North Dakota 15.9 14.3 16.9 14.1 15.0 14.3 12.0 11.0 18.5
Ohio 10.0 13.2 19.2 18.7 15.1 19.4 21.0 18.5 15.3
Oklahoma 19.7 15.7 22.6 17.7 18.7 24.2 22.9 25.4 17.7
Oregon 10.8 12.0 23.3 15.5 16.0 15.2 14.7 19.8 15.8
Pennsylvania 10.9 13.9 22.3 14.2 16.6 16.2 18.9 15.3 16.6
Rhode Island 11.7 13.8 23.1 13.9 8.4 21.7 14.1 14.3 21.0
South Carolina 28.7 21.0 29.3 23.2 24.7 29.0 20.6 19.1 19.5
South Dakota 18.9 20.0 23.2 21.8 13.9 19.0 19.2 13.4 16.8
Tennessee 24.6 20.6 28.4 23.5 26.5 21.3 19.0 22.8 19.1
Texas 21.7 18.7 22.7 24.7 24.0 26.6 27.7 24.1 23.0
Utah 10.6 10.7 16.2 14.2 10.0 11.8 9.0 8.8 11.5
Vermont 11.5 13.9 21.2 15.8 9.1 11.8 7.9 16.7 12.1
Virginia 18.0 14.9 16.1 14.6 14.8 14.6 12.0 17.2 17.6
Washington 9.8 11.5 13.6 18.5 11.2 15.3 15.7 16.0 14.0
West Virginia 24.3 18.5 30.9 30.8 21.5 35.1 26.3 24.0 20.6
Wisconsin 8.9 10.4 14.6 14.3 11.7 15.0 13.1 11.5 10.7
Wyoming 11.6 7.7 14.5 19.7 14.7 13.5 11.1 13.3 15.3
United States 13.8 16.0 21.8 19.8 19.0 21.6 21.2 19.8 19.2

Table B-4. Poverty Rate of All Persons By State, Selected Years 1969 – 1997

[In percent]

  1969 1979 1983 1986 1989 1992 1994 1996 1997
Alabama 25.4 18.9 22.9 23.8 18.9 17.3 16.4 14.0 15.7
Alaska 12.6 10.7 12.4 11.4 10.5 10.2 10.2 8.2 8.8
Arizona 15.3 13.2 16.5 14.3 14.1 15.8 15.9 20.5 17.2
Arkansas 27.8 19.0 21.6 21.3 18.3 17.5 15.3 17.2 19.7
California 11.1 11.4 14.9 12.7 12.9 16.4 17.9 16.9 16.6
Colorado 12.3 10.1 12.5 13.5 12.1 10.8 9.0 10.6 8.2
Connecticut 7.2 8.0 8.7 6.0 2.9 9.8 10.8 11.7 8.6
Delaware 10.9 11.9 8.5 12.4 10.0 7.8 8.3 8.6 9.6
Dist of Columbia 17.0 18.6 21.3 12.8 18.0 20.3 21.2 24.1 21.8
Florida 16.4 13.5 14.8 11.4 12.5 15.6 14.9 14.2 14.3
Georgia 20.7 16.6 18.8 14.6 15.0 17.7 14.0 14.8 14.5
Hawaii 9.3 9.9 13.4 10.7 11.3 11.2 8.7 12.1 13.9
Idaho 13.2 12.6 17.3 18.5 12.4 15.2 12.0 11.9 14.7
Illinois 10.2 11.0 14.4 13.3 12.7 15.6 12.4 12.1 11.2
Indiana 9.7 9.7 16.1 12.7 13.7 11.8 13.7 7.5 8.8
Iowa 11.6 10.1 16.7 12.9 10.3 11.5 10.7 9.6 9.6
Kansas 12.7 10.1 13.5 11.1 10.8 11.1 14.9 11.2 9.7
Kentucky 22.9 17.6 18.0 17.7 16.1 19.7 18.5 17.0 15.9
Louisiana 26.3 18.6 21.6 22.0 23.3 24.5 25.7 20.5 16.3
Maine 13.6 13.0 12.4 10.2 10.4 13.5 9.4 11.2 10.1
Maryland 10.1 9.8 8.6 9.2 9.0 11.8 10.7 10.3 8.4
Massachusetts 8.6 9.6 7.7 9.2 8.8 10.3 9.7 10.1 12.2
Michigan 9.4 10.4 16.8 13.9 13.2 13.6 14.1 11.2 10.3
Minnesota 10.7 9.5 12.3 12.5 11.2 13.0 11.7 9.8 9.6
Mississippi 35.4 23.9 26.9 26.6 22.0 24.6 19.9 20.6 16.7
Missouri 14.7 12.2 16.7 14.4 12.6 15.7 15.6 9.5 11.8
Montana 13.6 12.3 15.1 16.5 15.6 13.8 11.5 17.0 15.6
Nebraska 13.1 10.7 15.3 13.6 12.8 10.6 8.8 10.2 9.8
Nevada 9.1 8.7 9.8 8.1 10.8 14.7 11.1 8.1 11
New Hampshire 9.1 8.5 8.1 3.7 7.7 8.7 7.7 6.4 9.1
New Jersey 8.1 9.5 10.9 8.9 8.2 10.3 9.2 9.2 9.3
New Mexico 22.8 17.6 24.2 21.3 19.5 21.6 21.1 25.5 21.2
New York 11.1 13.4 15.8 13.2 12.6 15.7 17.0 16.7 16.5
North Carolina 20.3 14.8 15.9 14.3 12.2 15.8 14.2 12.2 11.4
North Dakota 15.7 12.6 15.1 13.5 12.2 12.1 10.4 11.0 13.6
Ohio 10.0 10.3 13.6 12.8 10.6 12.5 14.1 12.7 11
Oklahoma 18.8 13.4 16.9 14.7 14.7 18.6 16.7 16.6 13.7
Oregon 11.5 10.7 16.4 12.3 11.2 11.4 11.8 11.8 11.6
Pennsylvania 10.6 10.5 15.5 10.1 10.4 11.9 12.5 11.6 11.2
Rhode Island 11.0 10.3 14.8 9.1 6.7 12.4 10.3 11.0 12.7
South Carolina 23.9 16.6 20.9 17.3 17.0 19.0 13.8 13.0 13.1
South Dakota 18.7 16.9 18.1 17.0 13.2 15.1 14.5 11.8 16.5
Tennessee 21.8 16.5 20.1 18.3 18.4 17.0 14.6 15.9 14.3
Texas 18.8 14.7 15.7 17.3 17.1 18.3 19.1 16.6 16.7
Utah 11.4 10.3 13.9 12.6 8.2 9.4 8.0 7.7 8.9
Vermont 12.1 12.1 15.6 11.0 8.0 10.5 7.6 12.6 9.3
Virginia 15.5 11.8 11.4 9.7 10.9 9.5 10.7 12.3 12.7
Washington 10.2 9.8 10.8 12.9 9.6 11.2 11.7 11.9 9.2
West Virginia 22.2 15.0 22.3 22.4 15.7 22.3 18.6 18.5 16.4
Wisconsin 9.8 8.7 10.6 10.7 8.4 10.9 9.0 8.8 8.2
Wyoming 11.7 7.9 12.7 14.6 10.9 10.3 9.3 11.9 13.5
United States 13.7 12.4 15.2 13.6 12.8 14.8 14.5 13.7 13.3

Note: Due to limited sample size, rates for small states exhibit large sampling errors.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, for 1969 data, see 1970 Census of Population, PC(1)-C1 "General Social and Economic Characteristics", table 182; for 1979 data, see 1980 Census of Population, PC80-1-C1 "General Social and Economic Characteristics", table 245; 1983 and later years, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and earlier years, (Available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html).

Table B-5. Number and Percent of Persons in Poverty by Family Relationship for All Races, 1959 - 1997

All Races Persons in Families Related Children1 Under 18 in Families Related Children under 18 In Married-couple Families Related Children under 18 in Families with Female Householder
no husband present
Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent Thousands Percent

1 Related children under 18 include own children, including stepchildren and adopted children, plus all other children in the household who are related to the householder by blood, marriage, or adoption.

2 Estimated by subtracting an estimate of the number of children living in families headed by male householders with no wife present from the total number of children living in all male-headed households.

3 Prior to 1979 unrelated subfamiles were included in all families. Beginning in 1979 unrelated subfamilies are excluded from
all families.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and earlier years, (Available online at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.html).

1959 34,562 20.8 17,208 26.9 12,8522 22.32 4,145 72.2
1960 34,925 20.7 17,288 26.5 13,0042 22.12 4,095 68.4
1961 34,509 20.3 16,577 25.2 12,2902 20.92 4,044 65.1
1962 33,623 19.4 16,630 24.7 11,8492 19.72 4,506 70.2
1963 31,498 17.9 15,691 22.8 10,9302 17.72 4,554 66.6
1964 30,912 17.4 15,736 22.7 11,1272 18.02 4,422 62.3
1965 28,358 15.8 14,388 20.7 9,6442 15.62 4,562 64.2
1966 23,809 13.1 12,146 17.4 7,7172 12.42 4,262 58.2
1967 22,771 12.5 11,427 16.3 7,0502 11.32 4,246 54.3
1968 20,695 11.3 10,739 15.3 6,2102 10.02 4,409 55.2
1969 19,175 10.4 9,501 13.8 5,1462 8.52 4,247 54.4
1970 20,330 10.9 10,235 14.9 5,4072 9.02 4,689 53.0
1971 20,405 10.8 10,344 15.1 5,3532 9.12 4,850 53.1
1972 19,577 10.3 10,082 14.9 4,8692 8.52 5,094 53.1
1973 18,299 9.7 9,453 14.2 4,1722 7.42 5,171 52.1
1974 18,817 9.9 9,967 15.1 4,4182 8.12 5,361 51.5
1975 20,789 10.9 10,882 16.8 5,141 9.7 5,597 52.7
1976 19,632 10.3 10,081 15.8 4,333 8.3 5,583 52.0
1977 19,505 10.2 10,028 16.0 4,173 8.3 5,658 50.3
1978 19,062 10.0 9,722 15.7 3,865 7.8 5,687 50.6
19793 19,964 10.2 9,993 16.0 4,176 8.3 5,635 48.6
1980 22,601 11.5 11,114 17.9 4,982 10.1 5,866 50.8
1981 24,850 12.5 12,068 19.5 5,522 11.4 6,305 52.3
1982 27,349 13.6 13,139 21.3 6,139 12.6 6,696 56.1
1983 27,933 13.9 13,427 21.8 6,345 13.2 6,747 55.4
1984 26,458 13.1 12,929 21.0 5,757 12.2 6,772 54.0
1985 .......... 25,729 12.6 12,483 20.1 5,393 11.3 6,716 53.6
1986 24,754 12.0 12,257 19.8 4,942 10.4 6,943 54.4
1987 24,725 12.0 12,275 19.7 4,835 10.2 7,019 53.7
1988 24,048 11.6 11,935 19.0 4,552 9.5 6,955 52.9
1989 24,066 11.5 12,001 19.0 4,738 9.9 6,808 51.1
1990 25,232 12.0 12,715 19.9 4,907 10.2 7,363 53.4
1991 27,143 12.8 13,658 21.1 5,066 10.6 8,065 55.4
1992 28,961 13.3 14,521 21.6 5,547 11.2 8,368 54.6
1993 29,927 13.6 14,961 22.0 5,845 11.7 8,503 53.7
1994 28,985 13.1 14,610 21.2 5,439 10.8 8,427 52.9
1995 27,501 12.3 13,999 20.2 4,971 10.0 8,364 50.3
1996 27,376 12.2 13,764 19.8 5,035 10.1 7,990 49.3
1997 26,217 11.6 13,422 19.2 4,759 9.5 7,928 49.0

Table B-6. Composition of Poverty Population for Selected Demographic Groups, Selected Years

Demographic group Year 1
1959 1966 1975 1985 1990 1992 1994 1996 1997

1 Demographic data are for March of the following year.

2 Includes unrelated or single individuals.

3 Hispanic origin may be of any race; therefore numbers add to more than 100 percent.

4 Family includes related children under 18.

Source: 1998 Green Book, Table H-5. Based on data from March Current Population Survey.

Aged 13.9 17.9 12.8 10.5 10.9 10.3 9.6 9.4 9.5
Children 43.6 42.6 42.1 38.8 39.5 39.7 39.6 38.8 39.7
Nonaged adults 42.5 39.5 45.1 50.7 49.7 49.9 50.8 51.8 50.8
Individuals in Female-headed families2 26.3 36.0 47.4 49.5 53.4 52.6 52.8 53.5 52.7
Individuals in All other families2 73.7 64.0 52.6 50.5 46.6 47.4 47.2 46.5 47.3
Blacks 25.1 31.1 29.2 27.0 29.3 28.5 26.8 26.5 25.6
Whites 72.1 67.7 68.7 69.1 66.5 66.4 66.7 67.5 68.6
Other races 2.8 1.2 2.1 3.9 4.2 5.1 6.5 6.0 5.8
Hispanic origin3 NA NA 11.6 15.8 17.9 20.0 22.1 23.8 23.4
Individuals in Families with children4 NA NA NA NA 68.0 68.4 68.0 66.7 NA
Male present NA NA NA NA 30.7 31.4 31.2 30.1 NA
Female head NA NA NA NA 37.2 37.0 36.9 36.5 NA
Individuals in all Other families NA NA NA NA 32.0 31.6 32.0 33.3 NA

Figure B-3. Number of Persons Living in Poverty, Unemployed and Receiving Food Stamps 1 and AFDC, 1959 - 1997

(In millions)

Figure B-3. Number of Persons Living in Poverty, Unemployed and Receiving Food Stamps and AFDC, 1959 - 1997

1 Included in the total of persons receiving foods stamps are those persons served by the Family Food Assistance Program (FFAP) which was the predecessor nutrition assistance program to the Food Stamps Program. In 1962 FFAP had 6.4 million participants but by 1967 the number had dropped to 3 million and by 1974, its last year of significant operation it had 1.4 million participants. The Food Stamp program began in the early 1960s on an experimental basis and served less than 1 million participants until 1967 when it reached 1.4 million participants. By 1974 it served 12.9 million participants.

Notes: To be comparable to the poverty and unemployment data, persons receiving food stamps and AFDC benefits in the territories (Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) are excluded. Data for food stamp participants are for fiscal years; all of the other data series are for calendar years. The reason that the number of AFDC recipients declined slightly during the 1982 recession, rather than increasing as would be expected, was because of new restrictive eligibility provisions enacted as part of OBRA 1981— effective July 1, 1981 families with incomes greater than 150 percent of a State's standard of need were no longer eligible for AFDC income assistance; this was raised to 185 percent in 1984.

Source: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, National Data Bank of the USDA Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, monthly, and U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States: 1997," Current Population Reports, Series P60-201 and earlier years.


Table B-7. Annual AFDC Benefit Levels by State For a Mother and Two Children with No Earnings, Selected Years 1972 – 1996

State AFDC Benefit Levels (in 1996 dollars) Percent Change in Benefits
1972 1980 1985 1989 1993 1994 1996 1972-89 1989-93 1993-96
Average $8,542 $6,535 $5,792 $5,602 $4,930 $4,834 $4,569 -34.4 -12.0 -7.3
Weighted Average 8,723 6,813 6,134 5,980 5,138 5,005 4,718 -31.4 -14.1 -8.2

Note: Dollars adjusted for inflation using fiscal year average values of the CPI-U-X1 price index. Each state's weight in every year is the state's population of persons under 18 years of age in 1990 (for continuity over time Alaska, Hawaii, and the territories are not included).

Source: DHHS and Ways and Means Committee staff based upon state AFDC benefit data collected by the Congressional Research Service.

Alabama $3,847 $2,701 $2,065 $1,797 $2,134 $2,079 $1,968 -53.3 18.7 -7.8
Arizona 5,842 4,624 4,078 4,462 4,515 4,399 4,164 -23.6 1.2 -7.8
Arkansas 4,453 3,685 3,361 3,107 2,654 2,586 2,448 -30.2 -14.6 -7.8
California 11,363 10,825 10,274 10,570 8,119 7,694 7,152 -7.0 -23.2 -11.9
Colorado 8,086 6,637 6,056 5,434 4,632 4,513 4,272 -32.8 -14.8 -7.8
Connecticut 12,396 9,292 9,959 9,884 8,848 8,620 7,632 -20.3 -10.5 -13.7
Delaware 8,727 6,088 5,023 5,072 4,398 4,285 4,056 -41.9 -13.3 -7.8
District of Columbia 9,155 6,545 5,724 6,229 5,322 5,324 4,980 -32.0 -14.6 -6.4
Florida 5,130 4,462 4,201 4,371 3,943 3,841 3,636 -14.8 -9.8 -7.8
Georgia 4,097 3,753 3,903 4,158 3,643 3,549 3,360 1.5 -12.4 -7.8
Idaho 10,686 7,393 5,321 4,828 4,125 4,018 3,804 -54.8 -14.6 -7.8
Illinois 9,297 6,591 5,969 5,209 4,775 4,779 4,524 -44.0 -8.3 -5.3
Indiana 7,124 5,836 4,481 4,386 3,747 3,651 3,456 -38.4 -14.6 -7.8
Iowa 10,472 8,239 6,301 6,244 5,543 5,400 5,112 -40.4 -11.2 -7.8
Kansas 11,791 7,896 6,844 6,640 5,582 5,438 5,148 -43.7 -15.9 -7.8
Kentucky 6,590 4,303 3,448 3,472 2,967 2,877 3,144 -47.3 -14.6 6.0
Louisiana 4,560 3,959 3,325 2,894 2,472 2,408 2,280 -36.5 -14.6 -7.8
Maine 7,872 6,408 6,472 6,671 5,894 5,299 5,016 -15.3 -11.6 -14.9
Maryland 7,124 6,179 5,758 6,031 4,762 4,728 4,476 -15.3 -21.0 -6.0
Massachusetts 11,683 8,193 7,561 8,209 7,013 7,340 6,780 -29.7 -14.6 -3.3
Michigan (Wayne) 12,004 9,727 6,896 7,082 5,972 5,818 5,508 -41.0 -15.7 -7.8
Minnesota 11,755 9,543 9,242 8,102 6,922 6,744 6,384 -31.1 -14.6 -7.8
Mississippi 1,710 2,197 1,680 1,828 1,561 1,521 1,440 6.9 -14.6 -7.8
Missouri 4,809 5,676 4,796 4,341 3,799 3,701 3,504 -9.7 -12.5 -7.8
Montana 7,872 5,928 6,196 5,468 5,218 5,273 5,256 -30.5 -4.6 0.7
Nebraska 8,977 7,095 6,127 5,544 4,736 4,614 4,368 -38.2 -14.6 -7.8
Nevada 7,409 5,996 4,989 5,026 4,528 4,411 4,176 -32.2 -9.9 -7.8
New Hampshire 10,971 7,918 6,809 7,706 6,714 6,972 6,600 -29.8 -12.9 -1.7
New Jersey 11,043 8,239 7,072 6,458 5,517 5,375 5,088 -41.5 -14.6 -7.8
New Mexico 6,020 5,035 4,516 4,021 4,645 4,830 4,668 -33.2 15.5 0.5
New York 14,035 9,017 8,297 8,209 7,508 7,314 6,924 -41.5 -8.5 -7.8
North Carolina 6,519 4,394 4,306 4,051 3,539 3,448 3,264 -37.9 -12.6 -7.8
North Dakota 10,758 7,644 6,494 5,879 5,322 5,463 5,172 -45.4 -9.5 -2.8
Ohio 7,266 6,019 5,076 4,889 4,437 4,323 4,092 -32.7 -9.2 -7.8
Oklahoma 8,264 6,454 4,936 4,950 4,216 4,107 3,684 -40.1 -14.8 -12.6
Oregon 12,610 8,880 6,757 6,579 5,985 5,831 5,520 -47.8 -9.0 -7.8
Pennsylvania 11,291 7,278 6,371 6,122 5,478 5,337 5,052 -45.8 -10.5 -7.8
Rhode Island 11,185 7,781 7,159 8,270 7,209 7,023 6,648 -26.1 -12.8 -7.8
South Carolina 3,419 2,953 3,273 3,137 2,602 2,535 2,400 -8.2 -17.1 -7.8
South Dakota 10,437 7,347 5,758 5,742 5,426 5,451 5,160 -45.0 -5.5 -4.9
Tennessee 4,097 2,792 2,679 2,802 2,407 2,345 2,220 -31.6 -14.1 -7.8
Texas 4,132 2,655 2,923 2,797 2,394 2,383 2,256 -32.3 -14.4 -5.8
Utah 9,796 8,239 6,581 5,894 5,387 5,248 5,112 -39.8 -8.6 -5.1
Vermont 11,862 11,260 10,205 9,915 8,575 8,240 7,596 -16.4 -13.5 -11.4
Virginia 9,546 5,904 6,196 5,391 4,606 4,487 4,248 -43.5 -14.6 -7.8
Washington 11,683 10,482 8,332 7,493 7,104 6,921 6,552 -35.9 -5.2 -7.8
West Viginia 7,338 4,714 4,359 3,792 3,240 3,207 3,036 -48.3 -14.6 -6.3
Wisconsin 12,716 10,162 9,329 7,874 6,727 6,554 6,204 -38.1 -14.6 -7.8
Wyoming 8,727 5,264 6,301 5,483 4,684 4,563 4,320 -37.2 -14.6 -7.8

Table B-8. Annual AFDC and Food Stamp Benefit Levels by State For a Mother and Two Children with No Earnings, Selected Years 1972 – 1996

State AFDC & Food Stamp Benefit Levels (in 1996 dollars) Percent Change in Benefits
1972 1980 1985 1989 1993 1994 1996 1972-89 1989-93 1993-96
Average $10,769 $9,136 $8,563 $8,411 $8,139 $8,020 $7,876 -21.9 -3.2 -3.2
Weighted Average 10,921 9,331 8,811 8,682 8,286 8,136 7,977 -20.5 -4.6 -3.7

Note: Dollars adjusted for inflation using fiscal year average values of the CPI-U-X1 price index. Each state's weight in every year is the state's population of persons under 18 years of age in 1990 (for continuity over time Alaska, Hawaii, and the territories are not included).

Source: DHHS and Ways and Means Committee staff based upon state AFDC benefit data collected by the Congressional Research Service.

Alabama $7,481 $6,452 $5,706 $5,391 $5,933 $5,818 $5,724 -27.9 10.1 -3.5
Arizona 8,877 7,807 7,347 7,591 7,846 7,707 7,596 -14.5 3.4 -3.2
Arkansas 7,905 7,152 6,844 6,642 6,454 6,325 6,204 -16.0 -2.8 -3.9
California 12,742 12,132 11,684 11,866 10,357 10,014 9,684 -6.9 -12.7 -6.5
Colorado 10,448 9,211 8,731 8,274 7,924 7,783 7,668 -20.8 -4.2 -3.2
Connecticut 13,465 11,063 11,463 11,386 10,878 10,661 10,020 -15.4 -4.5 -7.9
Delaware 10,897 8,828 8,008 8,017 7,755 7,618 7,512 -26.4 -3.3 -3.1
District of Columbia 11,196 9,148 8,498 8,827 8,406 8,354 8,160 -21.2 -4.8 -2.9
Florida 8,379 7,695 7,433 7,527 7,443 7,314 7,224 -10.2 -1.1 -2.9
Georgia 7,655 7,200 7,224 7,377 7,235 7,111 7,032 -3.6 -1.9 -2.8
Idaho 12,269 9,738 8,217 7,847 7,573 7,441 7,344 -36.0 -3.5 -3.0
Illinois 11,296 9,179 8,669 8,195 8,093 8,037 7,908 -27.4 -1.2 -2.3
Indiana 9,775 8,653 7,628 7,537 7,300 7,175 7,092 -22.9 -3.2 -2.8
Iowa 12,118 10,329 8,903 8,838 8,562 8,404 8,256 -27.1 -3.1 -3.6
Kansas 13,042 10,089 9,282 9,403 8,796 8,645 8,472 -27.9 -6.5 -3.7
Kentucky 9,401 7,583 6,905 6,898 6,753 6,617 6,876 -26.6 -2.1 1.8
Louisiana 7,979 7,344 6,819 6,488 6,272 6,148 6,036 -18.7 -3.3 -3.8
Maine 10,298 9,052 9,022 9,136 8,809 8,328 8,184 -11.3 -3.6 -7.1
Maryland 9,775 8,893 8,832 8,958 8,184 8,100 7,968 -8.4 -8.6 -2.6
Massachusetts 12,966 10,297 9,785 10,213 9,590 9,761 9,420 -21.2 -6.1 -1.8
Michigan (Wayne) 13,191 11,366 9,319 9,424 8,861 8,696 8,664 -28.6 -6.0 -2.2
Minnesota 13,016 11,238 10,961 10,139 9,525 9,342 9,144 -22.1 -6.1 -4.0
Mississippi 5,608 5,951 5,321 5,422 5,361 5,261 5,196 -3.3 -1.1 -3.1
Missouri 8,154 8,541 7,848 7,505 7,339 7,213 7,128 -8.0 -2.2 -2.9
Montana 10,298 8,717 8,829 8,294 8,328 8,316 8,352 -19.5 0.4 0.3
Nebraska 11,071 9,531 8,780 8,348 7,989 7,859 7,740 -24.6 -4.3 -3.1
Nevada 9,974 8,765 7,983 7,985 7,846 7,707 7,596 -19.9 -1.7 -3.2
New Hampshire 12,468 10,105 9,258 9,861 9,382 9,507 9,300 -20.9 -4.9 -0.9
New Jersey 12,517 10,329 9,441 9,101 8,640 8,480 8,328 -27.3 -5.1 -3.6
New Mexico 9,002 8,094 7,653 7,281 7,937 8,011 7,944 -19.1 9.0 0.1
New York 15,051 10,872 10,577 10,455 10,136 9,951 9,720 -30.5 -3.1 -4.1
North Carolina 9,351 7,647 7,505 7,303 7,157 7,035 6,960 -21.9 -2.0 -2.7
North Dakota 12,318 9,913 9,037 8,582 8,406 8,455 8,292 -30.3 -2.1 -1.4
Ohio 9,875 8,780 8,045 7,889 7,846 7,656 7,536 -20.1 -0.5 -4.0
Oklahoma 10,572 9,083 7,946 7,932 7,625 7,504 7,260 -25.0 -3.9 -4.8
Oregon 13,626 10,776 9,841 9,612 9,329 9,152 8,964 -29.5 -2.9 -3.9
Pennsylvania 12,692 9,658 8,952 8,753 8,510 8,366 8,208 -31.0 -2.8 -3.5
Rhode Island 12,617 10,009 9,592 10,334 9,798 10,027 9,792 -18.1 -5.2 -0.1
South Carolina 7,181 6,642 6,783 6,663 6,402 6,275 6,156 -7.2 -3.9 -3.8
South Dakota 12,094 9,706 8,523 8,486 8,484 8,442 8,292 -29.8 -0.0 -2.3
Tennessee 7,655 6,530 6,319 6,397 6,207 6,085 5,976 -16.4 -3.0 -3.7
Texas 7,680 6,407 6,538 6,392 6,194 6,123 6,012 -16.8 -3.1 -2.9
Utah 11,645 10,329 9,098 8,593 8,445 8,303 8,256 -26.2 -1.7 -2.2
Vermont 13,091 12,436 11,635 11,407 10,683 10,394 9,996 -12.9 -6.4 -6.4
Virginia 11,470 8,701 8,829 8,241 7,898 7,770 7,656 -28.2 -4.2 -3.1
Washington 12,966 11,893 10,492 9,922 9,993 9,799 9,576 -23.5 0.7 -4.2
West Viginia 9,925 7,871 7,542 7,122 6,948 6,870 6,792 -28.2 -2.4 -2.2
Wisconsin 13,734 11,669 11,022 9,979 9,395 9,216 9,024 -27.3 -5.9 -3.9
Wyoming 10,897 8,254 8,903 8,305 7,963 7,821 7,704 -23.8 -4.1 -3.3

Table B-9. Civilian Unemployment Rate, Selected Years 1979 – 1997

(Percent of Civilian Labor Force)

  1979 1982 1985 1989 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States 5.8 9.7 7.2 5.3 7.5 6.9 6.1 5.6 5.4 4.9
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Local Area Unemployment Statistics, Geographic Profile of Employment and Unemployment, annual, (data for 1997 available online at http://stats.bls.gov:80/lauhome.htm).
Alabama 7.1 14.4 8.9 7.0 7.4 7.6 6.0 6.3 5.1 5.1
Alaska 9.2 9.9 9.7 6.7 9.2 7.7 7.8 7.3 7.8 7.9
Arizona 5.1 9.9 6.5 5.2 7.6 6.3 6.4 5.1 5.5 4.6
Arkansas 6.2 9.8 8.7 7.2 7.3 6.2 5.3 4.9 5.4 5.3
California 6.2 9.9 7.2 5.1 9.3 9.4 8.6 7.8 7.2 6.3
Colorado 4.8 7.7 5.9 5.8 6.0 5.3 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.3
Connecticut 5.1 6.9 4.9 3.7 7.6 6.3 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.1
Delaware 8.0 8.5 5.3 3.5 5.3 5.3 4.9 4.3 5.2 4.0
Dist. of Columbia 7.5 10.6 8.4 5.0 8.6 8.6 8.2 8.9 8.5 7.9
Florida 6.0 8.2 6.0 5.6 8.3 7.0 6.6 5.5 5.1 4.8
Georgia 5.1 7.8 6.5 5.5 7.0 5.8 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.5
Hawaii 6.3 6.7 5.6 2.6 4.6 4.3 6.1 5.9 6.4 6.4
Idaho 5.7 9.8 7.9 5.1 6.5 6.2 5.6 5.4 5.2 5.3
Illinois 5.5 11.3 9.0 6.0 7.6 7.5 5.7 5.2 5.3 4.7
Indiana 6.4 11.9 7.9 4.7 6.6 5.4 4.9 4.7 4.1 3.5
Iowa 4.1 8.5 8.0 4.3 4.7 4.0 3.7 3.5 3.8 3.3
Kansas 3.4 6.3 5.0 4.0 4.3 5.0 5.3 4.4 4.5 3.8
Kentucky 5.6 10.6 9.5 6.2 6.9 6.2 5.4 5.4 5.6 5.4
Louisiana 6.7 10.3 11.5 7.9 8.2 7.5 8.0 6.9 6.7 6.1
Maine 7.2 8.6 5.4 4.1 7.2 7.9 7.4 5.7 5.1 5.4
Maryland 5.9 8.4 4.6 3.7 6.7 6.2 5.1 5.1 4.9 5.1
Massachusetts 5.5 7.9 3.9 4.0 8.6 6.9 6.0 5.4 4.3 4.0
Michigan 7.8 15.5 9.9 7.1 8.9 7.1 5.9 5.3 4.9 4.2
Minnesota 4.2 7.8 6.0 4.3 5.2 5.1 4.0 3.7 4.0 3.3
Mississippi 5.8 11.0 10.3 7.8 8.2 6.4 6.6 6.1 6.1 5.7
Missouri 4.5 9.2 6.4 5.5 5.7 6.5 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.2
Montana 5.1 8.6 7.7 5.9 6.9 6.1 5.1 5.9 5.3 5.4
Nebraska 3.2 6.1 5.5 3.1 3.0 2.7 2.9 2.6 2.9 2.6
Nevada 5.1 10.1 8.0 5.0 6.7 7.3 6.2 5.4 5.4 4.1
New Hampshire 3.1 7.4 3.9 3.5 7.5 6.6 4.6 4.0 4.2 3.1
New Jersey 6.9 9.0 5.7 4.1 8.5 7.5 6.8 6.4 6.2 5.1
New Mexico 6.6 9.2 8.8 6.7 7.0 7.7 6.3 6.3 8.1 6.2
New York 7.1 8.6 6.5 5.1 8.6 7.8 6.9 6.3 6.2 6.4
North Carolina 4.8 9.0 5.4 3.5 6.0 4.9 4.4 4.3 4.3 3.6
North Dakota 3.7 5.9 5.9 4.3 5.1 4.4 3.9 3.3 3.1 2.5
Ohio 5.9 12.5 8.9 5.5 7.3 6.5 5.5 4.8 4.9 4.6
Oklahoma 3.4 5.7 7.1 5.6 5.7 6.1 5.8 4.7 4.1 4.1
Oregon 6.8 11.5 8.8 5.7 7.6 7.3 5.4 4.8 5.9 5.8
Pennsylvania 6.9 10.9 8.0 4.5 7.6 7.1 6.2 5.9 5.3 5.2
Rhode Island 6.6 10.2 4.9 4.1 9.0 7.8 7.1 7.0 5.1 5.3
South Carolina 5.0 10.8 6.8 4.7 6.3 7.6 6.3 5.1 6.0 4.5
South Dakota 3.5 5.5 5.1 4.2 3.2 3.6 3.3 2.9 3.2 3.1
Tennessee 5.8 11.8 8.0 5.1 6.4 5.7 4.8 5.2 5.2 5.4
Texas 4.2 6.9 7.0 6.7 7.7 7.2 6.4 6.0 5.6 5.4
Utah 4.3 7.8 5.9 4.6 5.0 3.9 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.1
Vermont 5.1 6.9 4.8 3.7 6.7 5.5 4.7 4.2 4.6 4.0
Virginia 4.7 7.7 5.6 3.9 6.4 5.1 4.9 4.5 4.4 4.0
Washington 6.8 12.1 8.1 6.2 7.6 7.6 6.4 6.4 6.5 4.8
West Virginia 6.7 13.9 13.0 8.6 11.4 10.9 8.9 7.9 7.5 6.9
Wisconsin 4.5 10.7 7.2 4.4 5.2 4.7 4.7 3.7 3.5 3.7
Wyoming 2.8 5.8 7.1 6.3 5.7 5.5 5.3 4.8 5.0 5.1

Appendix C. Additional Nonmarital Birth Data

Table C-1. Percentage of Births that are to Unmarried Women Within Age Groups by Race

  White Black
Under Age 15 Age 15 - 17 Age 18 - 19 All Teens All Women Under Age 15 Age 15 - 17 Age 18 – 19 All Teens All Women

Notes: Births to unmarried women in the United States for 1940 - 1979 are estimated from data for registration areas in which marital status of the mother was reported; see sources below. Beginning in 1980, births to unmarried women in the United States are based on data from states reporting marital status directly and data from nonreporting states for which marital status was inferred from other information on the birth certificate; see sources below. Data for 1996 are preliminary.

Sources: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Births to Unmarried Mothers: United States, 1980 - 1992," Vital and Health Statistics, Series 21, No. 53, 1995 and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics, "Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1996," Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 46, No. 11, June 30, 1998.

1940 44.4 NA NA 7.2 1.9 NA NA NA NA NA
1941 44.9 NA NA 7 1.9 NA NA NA NA NA
1942 40.5 NA NA 6.4 1.7 NA NA NA NA NA
1943 45.2 NA NA 6.5 1.6 NA NA NA NA NA
1944 41.3 NA NA 8.4 2 NA NA NA NA NA
1945 50.7 NA NA 10 2.4 NA NA NA NA NA
1946 52.4 NA NA 8.4 2.1 NA NA NA NA NA
1947 45.1 NA NA 6.6 1.8 NA NA NA NA NA
1948 39.9 10.3 4.6 6.3 1.8 NA NA NA NA NA
1949 40.4 10 4.5 6.1 1.7 NA NA NA NA NA
1950 41.9 10.2 4.8 6.4 1.7 NA NA NA NA NA
1951 34.9 9.7 4.4 5.9 1.6 NA NA NA NA NA
1952 40.4 9.6 4.4 6 1.6 NA NA NA NA NA
1953 43.1 9.6 4.5 6.1 1.7 NA NA NA NA NA
1954 36.8 10.2 4.9 6.5 1.8 NA NA NA NA NA
1955 42.1 10.2 4.9 6.6 1.9 NA NA NA NA NA
1956 42.6 10.2 4.8 6.5 1.9 NA NA NA NA NA
1957 41.5 10.4 4.7 6.5 2 NA NA NA NA NA
1958 45.3 10.8 4.9 6.8 2.1 NA NA NA NA NA
1959 46.7 11.4 5.2 7.2 2.2 NA NA NA NA NA
1960 47.5 11.7 5.4 7.4 2.3 NA NA NA NA NA
1961 49.9 12.4 6 7.9 2.5 NA NA NA NA NA
1962 48.3 13.4 6.1 8.2 2.8 NA NA NA NA NA
1963 50.3 15.1 7 9.4 3.1 NA NA NA NA NA
1964 52.3 16 7.6 10.4 3.4 NA NA NA NA NA
1965 57.3 17.3 9.1 11.7 4 NA NA NA NA NA
1966 52.5 19.5 9.9 12.6 4.4 NA NA NA NA NA
1967 61.6 21 11.2 14.2 4.9 NA NA NA NA NA
1968 61 23.4 12.7 16.1 5.3 NA NA NA NA NA
1969 57 24 12.9 16.6 5.5 91.7 72.1 48.3 60 34.9
1970 57.9 25.2 13.5 17.5 5.7 93.5 76 52.1 64 37.6
1971 60.5 25.2 13.2 17.4 5.6 95 79.6 56 68.1 40.5
1972 59 26.4 13.7 18.5 6 96.4 81 59 70.7 43.9
1973 65.2 27.6 14.3 19.6 6.4 96.4 82.6 60.4 72.1 45.7
1974 65.3 29.4 15 20.8 6.5 97.4 84.8 63.8 74.7 47.1
1975 71 33 17.2 23.5 7.3 98.4 87.4 67.6 77.8 48.8
1976 69.3 35.7 18.8 25.4 7.7 99.1 89.7 70.9 80.5 50.3
1977 72.8 38.9 21 27.8 8.2 98.8 90.6 74.6 82.6 51.7
1978 73.1 40.1 22.5 29.1 8.7 97.2 90.9 76.5 83.5 53.2
1979 75 42.4 24.3 30.8 9.4 99.4 92.9 78.9 85.7 54.7
1980 75.4 45.4 27.1 33.6 11.2 98.6 93.1 79.9 86.2 56.1
1981 76.5 48 28.7 35.5 11.8 98.9 93.9 81.3 87.2 56.9
1982 77.7 50.1 30.3 37.2 12.3 98.4 94.2 82.4 87.9 57.7
1983 79.9 53.1 32.7 39.8 12.9 98.5 95.1 84.4 89.4 59.2
1984 80.8 55.4 35.1 42.2 13.6 98.6 95.3 85.4 90 60.3
1985 82.4 58 38.2 45.3 14.7 98.8 95.6 86.2 90.6 61.2
1986 83.6 61.3 41.7 48.8 15.9 99 95.7 86.9 91.1 62.4
1987 84.6 64.6 44.4 51.8 16.9 99.1 96.1 87.6 91.7 63.4
1988 86.5 66.2 47.3 54.1 18 98.9 96.4 88.5 92.3 64.7
1989 84.7 67.2 49.5 55.7 19.2 98.4 96.1 89 92.3 59.2
1990 83.6 67.9 50.8 56.8 20.4 98.5 95.6 89.4 92.2 59.8
1991 75.5 69.7 53.2 59 21.8 98.1 95.7 89.8 92.5 60.3
1992 76.2 70.6 54.9 60.6 22.6 97.6 95.6 90.4 92.8 68.1
1993 83.2 71.7 57.2 62.7 23.6 98.1 95.7 90.8 93.1 68.7
1994 90.4 77.5 61.9 68 25.4 99.1 97.8 93.4 95.5 70.4
1995 88.8 77.4 62.1 68 25.3 99.1 97.7 93.2 95.3 69.9
1996 90.1 78.8 63.3 69.2 25.7 99.1 97.9 93.6 95.6 69.8
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