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The underlying goal of the WtW grants program is to promote the long-term economic self-sufficiency of individuals who have serious employment difficulties. With this goal in mind, the WtW programs at the 11 study sites offer a range of services to prepare participants for employment and to help participants remain employed.
The basic approach to preparing participants for employment is to provide
a range of pre-employment services to participants, including assessment
of service needs, job readiness skills instruction, and help in preparing
for and finding jobs. In some programs, in-house services are complemented
by, or coordinated with, services available through TANF and other agencies;
in other sites, all services are provided by program staff. The range of
pre-employment services and components available at the study sites fall
into four general categories, with variations and adaptations in different
sites:
A distinguishing feature of the programs studied is that, in addition to assessment and job readiness activities, they all include more intensive components as well. Substantial portions of participants are engaged in other activities which, depending on the program, may be education, training, transitional subsidized employment, or supported work experience. All programs in the study sites conduct some type of assessment and some type of job readiness activity, such as job search clubs, workshops, or life-skills classes, and provide client-specific job placement services. WtW programs also continue to serve participants after they obtain jobs. These post-employment services primarily address job retention, although a few programs incorporate activities to promote job advancement.
Programs serving welfare recipients routinely include some type of client assessment, but there is great variation in formality and intensity. In some programs assessments are an integral component of case management and service planning; in others, assessment primarily is used to determine whether an individual is employable and subject to mandatory work requirements. The simplest assessments consist of staff completing screening sheets to document a client's employment history or need for child care or other services. More formal tests and assessment instruments are administered to clients to measure basic skills, cognitive development, occupational interests, and other dimensions.
Study programs assess participants for at least three reasons: to establish WtW eligibility, determine an appropriate service strategy (including referrals), and explore employment potential. The primary areas of assessment are basic reading and math skills, personal and career goals, and barriers to employment. WtW providers use a combination of formal testing, structured interviews, and ongoing case management to assess the clients' overall employability and monitor progress in achieving goals. Every study site has some formal assessment activity (Table IV.1).
| Site/Program | Basic Skills Testing | Other Assessment |
|---|---|---|
| Boston | X |
Career interest inventory Tuberculosis test Substance abuse screening |
| Chicago | ||
| EES | X |
Substance abuse screening |
| Operation ABLE | X |
Criminal background check Substance abuse screening |
| MAXIMUS | X |
|
| Catholic Charities | X |
Substance abuse screening |
| Easter Seals | X |
Tests of work motivation, vocational interest, job search and employment
knowledge Substance abuse screening |
| SCJ | X |
|
| Suburban Job Link |
|
Substance abuse screening |
| Pyramid | X |
Criminal background check Substance abuse screening |
| Goodwill | X |
Computerized assessment of educational /vocational needs and interests |
| DESI | X |
|
| Inner Voice | X |
|
| Fort Worth | ||
| Women's Center | X (TANF Agency) |
|
| Arlington Night Shelter | X (TANF Agency) |
Screen for learning disabilities; career interest inventory Substance abuse screening |
| Goodwill Industries | X |
Extensive battery of tests for those with severe barriers to employment |
| Indiana-RVR | X |
|
| Milwaukee | X (TANF Agency) |
Assessment of barriers to employment and occupational interests Substance abuse screening |
| Nashville | X (TANF Agency) |
|
| Philadelphia-TWC | X |
|
| Phoenix | X |
|
| WestVirginia-HRDF | X (Usually TANF Agency) |
Work interest, interest aptitude Substance abuse screening |
| Yakima | X (Employment Services Department) |
|
| Johns Hopkins University | varies |
ACCUVision- video-based skills assessment Career Transcript competency tests |
| Source: Process Analysis site visits. | ||
Basic Skills Testing. The original WtW eligibility provisions required grantees to serve individuals with specific problems affecting employment, including persons with less than a high school education and low basic skills. It is, therefore, not surprising that all study programs routinely include in their assessments the results of some type of basic skills test to determine reading and mathematics ability level. The most common instrument is the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE), used in at least eight study sites. Other tests include the Job Corps Math and Reading Test, the Wide Ranging Abilities Test (WRAT), and the Adult Basic Learning Examination (ABLE). In at least five of the study sites, initial testing is conducted by the TANF agency and used for WtW eligibility determination prior to referral.
While testing is primarily conducted to determine eligibility (i.e., to determine whether an individual falls into the 70 percent eligibility category), some WtW programs also use the results to tailor services to the specific needs of individuals (e.g., to help develop individual service plans or employment development plans). In a few sites, testing is done at multiple points, and serves different purposes. Up-front testing is used to determine eligibility for WtW, but then further testing may be done when an individual begins a specific program component or is being considered for a particular job or training course.
Assessment of Personal and Career Goals. Participant assessment extends well beyond testing basic skills, and often also includes assessment of personal and career goals. In the study programs, this type of assessment is aimed at obtaining information that can be used to tailor the wide range of services available under WtW to each individual's employment barriers, career goals, and service needs. Each program in the study developed its own approach, including: adapting assessment forms, determining the sequence of steps involved in assessment, and deciding whether standardized tests or more subjective methods are used to assess capabilities and needs. Generally, participants complete career and interest assessment forms themselves, although program staff typically contribute significantly to the assessment process, helping participants to carefully think through their goals, assess personal strengths and weaknesses, and structure individual service plans.
Programs that offer training or work opportunities in specific industries or firms assess participant aptitude, interest, and other factors required by employers (e.g., behavioral characteristics) in order to determine appropriate placements or referrals. For example, Pyramid Partnership, Inc., a WtW program in Chicago, operates an employer-driven program that refers participants for entry-level training and unsubsidized jobs in retail, hospitality, and banking. Assessment at Pyramid includes a behavioral screen for work readiness which assesses motivation, social skills, and ability to get along with fellow workers. As part of the assessment process, the Pyramid case manager looks for potential barriers to employment and tries to determine if the individual would be a good match with a particular employer. In Boston, the WtW assessment is tailored to the types of requirements, including personal behavior and attitudinal factors, specified by each firm involved with one of the employer partnership programs.
Assessment of Barriers to Employment. An important part of the assessment process centers on the identification of specific barriers to employment. In all study sites, participants are routinely assessed for support service needs, such as child care, housing assistance, and transportation. Information is typically collected through one-on-one interviews designed to identify a wide range of barriers that could make working difficult. The most common barriers considered are lack of a driver's license, lack of an automobile, and other transportation-related problems; inadequate or unavailable child care; substance abuse or mental health problems; and family problems (such as having to care for a sick or disabled family member).
Both WtW and TANF staff in the study sites report that they are increasingly aware of the need to identify some of the more serious of these personal problems, such as substance abuse, mental health issues, and domestic violence. Screening for these problems is also motivated by federal policies, such as those that allow domestic violence victims special exemptions from TANF work requirements, and the original WtW eligibility criteria that specified substance abuse as a barrier to consider in qualifying an individual in the 70 percent eligibility category.
Substance abuse problems and mental health needs are generally identified through informal screening methods, although some programs use formal tests and instruments. In most of the study sites, WtW or TANF staff informally screen for substance abuse and mental health concerns, generally by asking clients whether they have a problem with drugs or alcohol. In five sites (Boston, Chicago, Fort Worth, Milwaukee, and Philadelphia-TWC), at least some of the WtW programs conduct formal screening for substance abuse problems, either using a structured set of questions (such as those on the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory) or by urinalysis. WtW programs with linkages to substance abuse treatment facilities or that have employer partners that require drug testing are particularly likely to conduct formal drug screening.
Formal assessments are also used in some WtW programs, primarily to help identify appropriate treatment options for individuals who may have mental health, substance abuse, or other disabilities. For example, Goodwill programs funded under WtW grants in Fort Worth and Boston have strong vocational rehabilitation services and offer psychological or behavioral testing on-site. Several of the many programs funded by the WtW grant in Chicago use various behavioral and diagnostic screening tools to help develop individualized plans for clients that include employment preparation as well as treatment and counseling. The Arlington Night Shelter, a WtW provider in Fort Worth, uses the Washington State Screen for Learning Disabilities.
Both WtW and TANF staff report that they are increasingly aware of domestic violence issues. Many of the TANF and WtW programs include discussions of domestic violence and child abuse issues as part of their orientation sessions or job search workshops. In several of the study sites, TANF staff can refer welfare recipients to experts on domestic violence issues who are located in the TANF office. In some states, such as Massachusetts and Illinois, computerized TANF intake systems include special screens with questions for identifying domestic violence service needs as well as other needs such as mental health or substance abuse treatment.
Ongoing Assessment. Although the assessment process is initiated during intake, all the study programs emphasize ongoing assessment and monitoring of participants throughout their involvement in the program. In all of the study programs, the individual one-on-one interaction between the participant and a staff person is the main method for assessing needs and employability. Staff, usually referred to as counselors or case managers, are assigned a certain number of participants for whom they are responsible. Often, an employment development or individual services plan is developed for each participant, much like a contract between the agency and the participant, setting out short- and long-term goals, steps participants are expected to take in realizing these goals, and types of services to be made available to the participant. The case manager provides or adjusts services or makes external referrals as needed.
One variation on this general approach involves intensive monitoring of a participant's progress towards the ultimate goal of economic self-sufficiency. For example, the Nashville WtW program, built upon the Pathways model developed under Project Match in Chicago, encourages participants to take "small steps" towards independence, and holds regular monthly peer support groups and individualized self-assessment as well as ongoing reassessment of progress. The steps can include achieving personal or family goals, community activities, soft skills (attitude, motivation, self-esteem), basic education, and ultimately skills development and employment. Once an individual becomes employed, the counselor prepares an annual status report based on periodic and continuous contact and intervention as needed. In Chicago, the WtW-funded program operated by Catholic Charities also incorporates dimensions of the Pathways model for participants with serious employment barriers and substance abuse problems.
Beyond assessment, programs offer a range of pre-employment preparation and job search services, some education and training, and a variety of subsidized or transitional employment activities. These services differ across the study sites in terms of how much priority is placed on various activities, specific details about how the services are delivered, and which participants receive different services. The number of participants active in various services and the length of time individuals remain in components also vary.
Federal welfare reform legislation and most state TANF agencies emphasize rapid employment, and the WtW grant-funded programs were expected to complement that focus. Therefore, at the core of WtW programs, like most other employment programs for welfare recipients, are various types of activities intended to prepare individuals to search for and obtain jobs: job search workshops, job readiness classes, work orientation sessions, life-skills classes, job clubs, and job placement services. Such pre-employment preparation components operate in all of the study programs and are, in fact, the most common activities, although by no means the only activities in which individuals participate. Participation in pre-employment activities ranges from about 60 percent of Fort Worth participants to 100 percent of participants in West Virginia's HRDF programs (Chart IV.1).(20)
Source: Program Management Information Systems.
Job search is offered in all WtW programs, but its role in the program varies. In some programs, pre-employment activities complement more developmentally focused services such as transitional or subsidized employment. In other programs, such as the temporary employment providers (see Chapter II) in Chicago, developmental services are emphasized less than assistance in immediately finding a job. However, even more developmentally focused programs, such as Philadelphia-TWC and Boston's employer partnership programs, which mainly emphasize work experience or occupational preparation, rather than job search, also sponsor some type of job readiness or job search activity. Some programs encourage individuals to attempt to find employment in the regular job market before considering other more developmental activities. Others incorporate instruction into a more developmental approach to improve participants' understanding of the world of work or work attitudes and behavior--the so-called "soft skills." Participants often undertake other activities at the same time that they are involved in job search and/or job preparation. For example, an individual could participate in an eight-week job search workshop and be simultaneously co-enrolled in an education course or a work internship.
Although the focus on employment and the work readiness topics addressed in pre-employment components are similar across programs, the delivery approaches are quite diverse. For example, in various sites, WtW enrollees may participate in job search and job preparation activities at the TANF agency, at one-stop career centers, or at the offices of a WtW contractor.
Job Search. Consistent with the work orientation of TANF programs, WtW participants are involved in a variety of job search activities. Independent job search may simply require the enrollee to document employer contacts and "check in" with a case manager on a weekly basis. In supervised job search, the case manager works closely with the enrollee to identify and follow up on job leads. In job clubs or groups, individuals meet together to discuss their experiences, learn about successful approaches to finding a job, and then work individually at job search activities. Most study sites structured job search activities in a manner that combined two or more of these job search assistance approaches. WtW enrollees in seven of the study sites participate in job search as a structured activity with formal attendance requirements. For example, participants in the Women's Center program in Fort Worth attend a one-week job readiness workshop followed by individualized job search assistance. In three sites (Indiana-RVR, Nashville, and West Virginia-HRDF) job search assistance and counseling is provided on an individualized basis as part of ongoing case management. One of the WtW programs in Indiana-RVR provides individualized case management that includes employment counseling, but refers participants to a subcontractor for job placement services once an individual is deemed to be "job ready."
Job Readiness Instruction. Programs offer a variety of activities designed to prepare participants, particularly those with little or no work experience, for the world of work by combining job search assistance services with instruction and workshops on a broader range of work-related issues. Job readiness classes and workshops cover a range of topics, including basic work readiness and job seeking skills, such as how to dress, arriving at interviews or work on time, and communicating with your supervisor; "life skills," such as mastering the public transportation system and balancing work and family responsibilities; and motivational workshops designed to build self-esteem.
Some job preparation programs also integrate components of basic reading and math skills or computer instruction, particularly in resume preparation activities. For example, the EARN Alliance in Phoenix incorporates workplace reading and math skills and computer-based occupational learning modules in its three-week job readiness class. These components had been provided under a national competitive WtW grant called High Performance Learning (HPL). Phoenix was one of the participating sites, and when the HPL grant ended, HPL staff continued providing services under contract to EARN. The Urban League, a Boston WtW contractor, includes 30 to 40 hours of computer basic training in its six-week job readiness-training component. Programs in Chicago, Indiana-RVR, and Milwaukee refer clients to other service providers for instruction in basic reading, math, or computer literacy skills on an individual basis depending on needs identified during job search/job readiness activities. For example, the Chicago WtW grantee (the Mayor's Office of Workforce Development) contracts with Sylvan Learning Centers, to which other WtW subcontractor programs can refer participants to receive basic skills instruction. WtW grantees or program contractors in at least three sites (Boston, Chicago, and West Virginia-HRDF) offer workplace-based orientations to work. For example, WtW participants with one Boston contractor attend job readiness classes in the morning and then job shadowing (at a retailer) in the afternoon. WtW participants enrolled with Easter Seals in Chicago work in a sheltered workshop while attending job readiness training.
The WtW legislation initially de-emphasized education and training by disallowing the use of grant funds for stand-alone pre-employment education or training. Grantees were, however, allowed, and even encouraged, to provide any necessary education or training in a post-employment situation--either in conjunction with work or mixing part-time work with part-time training or education. The 1999 amendments allowed grant funds to be used for short-term pre-employment training or education. (21)
With few exceptions, the WtW study programs included in this evaluation provide occupational training or education (directly or through referral) to relatively few of their WtW participants, and for those who do participate, the duration of education and training is fairly short. Across the study sites, only about 20 percent of participants at only 6 of the study sites have been involved in pre-employment education or occupational training.(22) In some sites, however, a relatively high proportion of participants has engaged in education or training. Chart IV.2 displays participation rates in education and training for those sites offering such services. In Phoenix, almost 40 percent of participants were involved in education or vocational training, usually complementing other activities. In Nashville, almost 37 percent of participants were in education or training, and in Philadelphia-TWC, about 76 percent of participants received education services as part of the program. Fort Worth, West Virginia-HRDF, and Yakima also reported participation in education or training, although for Yakima the participation rate was less than one percent. The median number of weeks spent in pre-employment education or training ranged from about 6 weeks in Nashville to about 13 weeks in Phoenix (Appendix C).
Source: Program Management Information Systems.
There are several reasons for the low levels of education and training participation. First, and probably most important, the WtW program's principal goal is to place welfare recipients into full-time unsubsidized work as rapidly as possible. Under WtW, occupational training and upgrading of basic skills are considered to be activities that should principally occur in conjunction with employment, primarily as a post-employment service. The initial inability to use WtW grant funds for stand-alone pre-employment education and training clearly restricted education and training in WtW programs. The programs did not change much in this regard even after the 1999 changes, in large part because they already had established particular program models and approaches. Second, TANF requirements that states meet performance standards for engaging a specified proportion of TANF recipients in allowable work activities (i.e., work requirements) add pressure from the TANF system on WtW programs to emphasize rapid work attachment models. In addition, the imposition of time limits under welfare also creates pressure on TANF recipients to move as quickly as possible toward employment, and discourages longer-term training that uses up remaining time under lifetime limits. Finally, many TANF recipients enter WtW programs with a preference for working over training or education. While looming time limits under TANF may be one factor in recipients' desire to move into unsubsidized jobs as quickly as possible, there are others. For example, with respect to basic education, caseworkers noted that WtW clients may have performed poorly in school or other classroom settings, and thus, are reluctant to return to a situation in which they have encountered failures in the past.
In the six study sites that have incorporated education or training into their initiatives, services are provided either directly or by establishing referral arrangements with other training providers. Typically, pre-employment education is provided on a referral basis and WtW enrollees attend classes part-time, while also participating in other work-related activities, such as life-skills training or job search. Adult basic education, ESL, and GED programs are often available through public school systems and other community providers at no (or minimal) cost to the participant. In Philadelphia-TWC, Phil@Work clients placed in transitional work assignments also participate in 10 hours of "wraparound training" each week, including such topics as GED preparation, remedial instruction, or basic computer training. Any costs associated with these programs are paid by TANF or WtW funds. Other sources of education and training accessed by study grantees for WtW participants include community colleges and technical schools, contractor-operated short-term training programs, computer-based learning modules, and employer-specific occupational training, which is often based at the work site.
The principal objective of the WtW program is to move long-term TANF recipients, including individuals facing serious barriers to employment, into full-time, unsubsidized jobs. To accomplish the difficult task of working with and eventually placing individuals with severe problems into employment, all the study sites offer some type of supported work or transitional employment--either directly through the WtW program or through referral to other programs within their communities (e.g., a community jobs program funded by TANF). Participation in this type of activity varies significantly across the WtW sites, from more than 80 percent of all individuals in the Chicago business and industry partnerships, to less than 3 percent in Chicago temporary jobs programs (Chart IV.3).
TANF work requirements in several states also have motivated TANF-funded and WtW-funded programs to create subsidized and transitional jobs to assure that all recipients required to work do so. In general, staff in WtW programs that target individuals with serious problems, such as physical or mental disabilities and low basic education competency, explain that most individuals are able to meet their TANF work requirements for a few weeks by participating in job readiness workshops. However, for those unable to find employment quickly, subsidized components, such as transitional employment or supported work experience, make it possible for participants to continue to meet their TANF work requirements and simultaneously gain potentially marketable
Source: Program Management Information Systems.
skills. In some programs, subsidized work--particularly on-the-job training (OJT) and internships--provides a direct avenue for promoting placement in full-time unsubsidized work (i.e., employers are expected to hire the worker if he/she successfully completes the trial work period). Hence, placement in supported/transitional work positions provides a bridge to unsubsidized employment for WtW participants who may have already tried, but were unsuccessful, in securing unsubsidized jobs (or after assessment are judged by case workers to be unlikely to secure a job).
While participants are generally paid for each hour of involvement in supported/transitional work, this is not always the case. When paid, participants are most likely to receive either the minimum wage (e.g., Philadelphia-TWC, Yakima, and several subcontractors in the Chicago and Fort Worth sites) or the "going" rate for what are usually entry-level jobs. If the position is contracted as an OJT (generally with a commitment to hire and provide job-specific training over a six-month period), the participant is paid at the going hourly rate that other new hires in the same positions would receive from the employer. In some programs, participants receive no payment for work experience hours, though they may receive some type of work-related expense payment.
The role and extent of supported/transitional work are quite different across sites, and even within sites. One approach places individuals into some type of temporary work experience assignment when they emerge from an initial job readiness workshop. Following a four-week job readiness workshop, about two-thirds of participants in West Virginia's HRDF WtW program are placed (for up to six months) in work experience jobs at nonprofit organizations. Typically, participants remain in these slots for two to four months and there is no expectation that the individual will be hired. More capable job ready participants are placed (up to one month) in positions at for-profit organizations or in paid on-the-job training positions (OJT) for up to six months, with the understanding that the employer will likely hire the individual if he/she completes the training period. While involved in unpaid positions, participants continue to receive their TANF cash grant, food stamps, and a work-related expense payment of $1.60 per hour; while involved in OJT, participants receive the entry-level wage for the job (which is typically paid half by the employer and half by HRDF for the contracted training period). In Philadelphia also, where TWC's Phil@Work program is targeted to participants who have little to no work experience, soon after enrollment participants are placed in 25 hour-per-week transitional work positions that pay $5.15 per hour and last up to six months. In addition, as described in the previous section, clients participate in 10 hours of training each week.
A more targeted approach to transitional employment involves collaboration with employers or emphasizes particular occupations or industrial sectors. In Boston, less job-ready participants are offered transitional work through the Enhanced Community Service component. This program component is operated by two community-based organizations that provide 20 hours of community service in specific jobs/occupations (e.g., day care teacher aide, health care, and hospitality assignments), supplemented with 15 hours of "enhanced readiness services " (e.g., ESL or basic education). ABCD places individuals in day care teacher aide assignments; JVS works with a collaborative group of agencies that work mainly with immigrants and places individuals in health and hospitality assignments.
At the time the WtW legislation was enacted, it was among the first federal welfare initiatives in a nondemonstration setting to specifically emphasize post-employment services, both for job retention and education or skills development. Because the original legislation prohibited expenditure of WtW funds on stand-alone pre-employment education and training, most programs attempted to design post-employment approaches to training and education. Most of the programs in the study sites emphasized ongoing case management to individuals once they started working, all formally provided job retention services, and a few actively incorporated post-employment education and training, either in the workplace or through special instructional programs (Table IV.2). However, despite the availability of these services, very few participants were actually involved in retention and other post-employment activities, aside from having staff contact them regularly. Some staff explained that once employed, most individuals were not interested in participating in further services.
| Typical Length of Active Follow-Up / Active Case Management | Additional Retention Services | Post-Employment Education/Training |
|---|---|---|
| Up to 6 Months | ||
| Fort Worth | Retention/advancement workshops, visits to worksites | Training and skill upgrading available, primarily through referral to WIA |
| Milwaukee NOW | Mentoring, retention goals for providers | Basic education, ESL, and occupational training available |
| Philadelphia-TWC | Workplace mentoring, retention goals for providers | Occupational training available |
Up to 12 Months |
||
| Chicago | Retention workshops, retention goals for providers | Advanced skills training (e.g., education, computer skills, occupational training) (some programs), referrals to WIA |
| Nashville | Retention goals for providers | |
| Phoenix | Mentoring, job advancement assistance | Computer-based instruction for career advancement |
| West Virginia-HRDF | Wage supplements, retention goals for providers | Short-term training at HRDF's Stanley Tech, community colleges and vocational schools |
| Yakima-WtW & SHARE | Mentoring, job and wage advancement assistance | Basic and occupational skills training available |
More than 12 Months |
||
| Boston | Job advancement assistance | On-site occupational certification classes (some employers) |
| Indiana-RVR | Visits with employers | Educational activities (e.g., GED classes) available |
| JHU-MD, FL, CA | Retention incentive payments to enrollees | Ongoing and comprehensive workplace competency-based program to improve skills |
| Source: Process Analysis site visits. | ||
Retention Services. All the WtW-funded programs in the study sites provide post-employment retention services, including maintaining contact with individuals once they start working, helping them access TANF transitional benefits (child care and Medicaid), and providing transportation assistance. Some programs go further and provide personal support counseling on a more intensive basis, sponsor peer group workshops, and offer job search assistance to obtain a new job.
The WtW legislation specifies that once individuals are determined eligible, programs are not required to redetermine eligibility in order to continue to receive services. Most of the study programs, therefore, serve eligible participants for as long as they need and request employment-related services. While most sites have specific timeframes in which post-employment follow-up and case management are actively administered, staff in many of the programs referred to an "open door policy," which allows individuals, whether employed or not, to come back for further employment assistance at any time until the end of the WtW contract. This open-ended eligibility means that the average duration in some programs tends to be quite long. It also means that there is no specific length of time during which post-employment services are provided.
The most basic retention service involves making telephone or in-person contact with the individual or the employer on a regular basis (e.g., weekly or monthly). All study programs reported doing this. In addition, all of the programs in the study sites expect staff to monitor the progress of the participants and identify the need for services or guidance on particular issues. A few programs have retention specialists, job coaches, or participant representatives who work only (or mainly) with employed individuals, providing case management services and counseling.
Beyond basic case management and follow-up services, most retention services provided at the WtW study sites can be classified under one of three categories: retention goals and incentives, mentors, and job and wage advancement assistance.
Retention Payments to Subcontractors. Some programs include retention goals as one milestone for paying subcontractors. In the Milwaukee, Chicago, Nashville and Indiana-RVR study sites, for example, payments to subcontractors are linked to the achievement of placement and retention goals (typically 180 days). Depending on the site, employment and retention benchmark payments may serve as the primary form of payment to the subcontractor (Milwaukee), represent about half of reimbursement (Chicago), and/or be accompanied by educational benchmark payments (Nashville). Furthermore, the payments might remain relatively constant for each period of retention (Milwaukee), or increase with each successive stage, strengthening incentives for long-term retention (Indiana-RVR).
Monetary Incentives for Enrollees. Other programs focus on incentives for enrollees rather than subcontractors. HRDF in West Virginia provides wage supplements for up to 24 weeks for individuals placed in lower-wage jobs, and provides retention bonuses at 90 and 180 days after job placement. These bonuses are paid in the form of either a gift certificate (e.g., to Wal-Mart) or a payment by HRDF to a utility company of the participant's choice. Enrollee incentive payments in the JHU CTS programs also take the form of gift certificates, but are offered at benchmarks up to 12 months after reaching employment, while follow-up continues even past 12 months. Furthermore, retention benchmarks can be met without staying in the same job, such as by leaving a position for a better job or by working to find a new position after losing a job.
Mentoring. The post-employment mentor programs implemented by WtW grantees demonstrate that mentors can be recruited from a variety of environments. On one end of the spectrum are the "professional mentoring services" provided by Southwest Behavioral Health for Phoenix EARN participants. Southwest mentors visit their assigned EARN participants once per week at their job sites, and can meet with participants outside of the job on a one-on-one basis to discuss work-related issues that participants feel uncomfortable discussing at work. The Southwest mentors attend weekly progress meetings with EARN staff, during which they review each participant's status and discuss any issues that emerge as a team. The Yakima Valley Opportunities Industrialization Center (OIC) exemplifies an intermediate, less strictly "professional" approach. OIC recruits volunteers to serve as mentors, as a supplement to case management services. The volunteers serve as a source of support and encouragement, troubleshoot problems arising in the transition from welfare to work, and are available in the evenings and on weekends. An even less formalized approach is the "workplace mentoring" component offered by the Philadelphia Workforce Development Corporation (the city WIB). Employers choose another employee working with the WtW participant, who is trained by a consultant and serves as the participant's mentor. The goal of such a structure is to get full disclosure of workplace issues and problems facing the participant.
Job and Wage Advancement Assistance. A primary method of providing job advancement and wage progression services is the workshop. In Fort Worth, the Women's Center offers Weekend Advancement Workshops, typically attended by eight to 10 WtW participants, held for four hours every other weekend. The workshops focus on survival skills in the workplace, ways to advance to higher paying jobs, and education and training opportunities available to help individuals advance up the career ladder. Almost all the WtW-funded programs in Chicago sponsor Retention Groups, similar to the Fort Worth workshops in frequency, size, duration, and content. The Retention Groups also discuss special topics (e.g., tax counseling, IDAs, and training opportunities). To encourage attendance, monthly bus passes are distributed at the meetings and special speakers occasionally attend.
Other programs use a less group-oriented approach to job and wage advancement. The Phoenix EARN program provides advancement assistance through its mentoring program. WorkSource Yakima, under a Job Success Coach Initiative funded by the state, uses Job Success coaches to provide job advancement and wage progression assistance, also along with mentoring services. In Boston, the Neighborhood Development Corporation Program combines intensive case management with a focus on career ladder issues, providing services to place clients in new and better jobs.
Post-Employment Education and Training. A few programs have adopted strategies to promote post-employment education and training, but these services are not as common in the study sites as retention services. While administrators in most of the programs stated that post-employment education and training was an important goal, and most programs took preliminary steps to provide basic post-employment training, few programs had implemented post-employment services comprehensively enough to attract a significant portion of employed participants. Several staff noted that their primary focus was helping individuals retain their jobs and that, given their barriers, few participants were at a point where they could start moving up in the job market. The first step was to help individuals enter employment and become stable in their job. Some of the study programs, however, did actively encourage employed participants to attend classes that would improve their work skills or qualify them for a better job, or actually sponsored such classes.
The JHU-CTS programs, with their focus on individuals already employed, were the only programs in the study sites that emphasized post-employment skills development. Johns Hopkins University's Career Transcript System (CTS) is an innovative approach designed to 1) assess and improve worker skills that are directly relevant to a particular job, 2) provide training and support to help supervisors evaluate and improve worker skills, and 3) create an individualized record, or transcript, documenting the worker's acquisition and improvement of skills, in order to support advancement up a career ladder. To implement the system for their WtW participants, program staff found it was also important to help participants address personal and family needs that affected their ability to work and maintain employment.
The basic foundation of the CTS is that employers help identify a core set of skills, such as reading, problem solving, and soft skills (interpersonal communications, teamwork, listening, punctuality, time management, etc.) that are required of the specific individual hired into an entry-level position. Employers (usually the immediate supervisor) review a list of 37 workplace skills and choose 6-7 skills most important to successfully perform the job held by the participant. They rate the participant's current performance on those skills using the AES Skills Assessment. Information from this review is then combined with scores from video-based assessments to create a participant-specific evaluation. Workplace Liaisons and the participant collaborate to produce an Individual Development Plan, identifying short- and longer-term improvement goals and activities to accomplish them. Skills are developed primarily on the job, using work-based learning and experience. Measures of skill progress are entered into an Internet-based transcript, and workers receive certifications of achievement they can use in developing plans for future career paths and as "portable credentials" in searching for a new job.
Operationally, the three JHU-CTS programs implemented some, but not all, of the basic CTS features. For example, the Internet-based transcript system was not operational at the time of the site visits, and the video-based assessment was not used systematically, since it was not always considered directly relevant to a particular individual. Employers were not routinely asked to define the skills they wanted for a particular worker; instead, counselors tended to focus on skills they felt were common to most jobs. The most promising CTS component, according to program staff and employers, is the skills assessment instrument that supervisors use to evaluate worker performance, and which includes interpersonal skills, workplace understanding and other soft skills. The instrument has even been adopted by some employers--particularly smaller establishments without professional or corporate human resources staff--for their other employees. Although they were not fully implementing the CTS model, all three programs implemented what might be described as a participant-centered post-employment retention strategy that includes intensive case management and partnerships with employers.
Other programs in study sites also have incorporated some post-employment education and skills development for at least some participants. This is often collaboratively done with a business or employer-the Benjamin Health Care employer partnership in Boston, for instance, provides workers with paid time-off to attend classroom training. While most study sites provide basic classroom education and occupational training, some also provide post-employment education in close coordination with community colleges and/or vocational schools (Boston, West Virginia-HRDF), and EARN participants in Phoenix can receive post-employment training at their own pace through computer-based instruction for several hours a week.
A future report will determine whether the types of employment services offered through these programs have positive results in terms of outcomes for participants. However, the descriptions in this chapter indicate that for the WtW-funded programs in the study, grantees developed and implemented strategies that went beyond basic self-directed job search and immediate job placement, particularly providing participants with staff support and case management and in several sites operating transitional and supportive work components. While most programs did not include extensive post-employment and education and training activities, all the programs in the study sites provided post-employment contact and case management services to help individuals retain jobs.
20. The Johns Hopkins University (JHU) WtW programs are excluded because, by design, enrollees in the JHU programs are employed.
21. The 1999 changes allow WtW funds to be used for pre-employment education and job training for up to six months.
22. Some sites that referred WtW enrollees to other providers for occupational training may not have recorded such participation in their program data.
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