IV. Structuring Activities:

Advice on Program Components

Work first program activities teach participants the skills that they need in order to look for, find, and keep a job. Part IV of this guide (sections 23-31) describes nine activities frequently included in work first programs: applicant job search; orientation; assessment; job club; job development; education; training; work experience and subsidized employment; and retention and reemployment services. They are discussed in roughly the order in which a participant might encounter them as she moves through the program. The core work first activity is job search, and running effective group job clubs is perhaps the most important element of work first implementation. If you read only one section of this guide, read section 26, on job clubs. However, job search alone will not help all participants find jobs. The other activities round out the program, making it more successful than job search alone. The quality of all these activities, and the extent to which they support the goals of work first, can determine the effectiveness of your program.

23. Applicant Job Search

Applicant job search (AJS)-in which individuals are required to look for a job prior to approval for benefits-has become increasinglypopular in recent years as a component of work first programs. Proponents of AJS argue that it can accomplish two important things: it can reduce welfare costs by diverting people who can find jobs relatively easily from coming on welfare; and it can send a messageto applicants that the goals of work and self-sufficiency will be emphasized from the outset of their contact with the welfare system. Focusing on applicants, however, means spending resources on many individuals who would have found employment quickly on their own or who will not be approved to receive welfare. This diverts resources from longer-term recipients, who may need program services more (see section 8, on participation requirements). You might therefore consider other ways to communicate an early message about the importance of work, and focus instead on quickly moving approved applicantsinto work first.

Suggestions for AJS

If you do decide to run an AJS activity, the following advice can help you do so more effectively.

24. Orientation

As a participant's first experience with work first, the orientation plays a crucial role in setting the tone for the program as a whole. In general, the orientation should accomplish three core things:

Unfortunately, these core purposes are often lost sight of because orientations try to accomplish too much and get bogged down in details. Orientation frequently is used for myriad other tasks, from administering assessment tests to filling out extensive paperwork.

Orientation is also the point in welfare-to-work programs where participation falls off the most; programs report that typically, as many as half of those scheduled for orientation fail to attend. It is worthwhile, therefore, to focus effort and resources on marketing, communication, and follow-up to bring people in to orientation. (See also section 33, on maximizing participation.)

Ideas for Effective Orientations

Additional Orientation Suggestions

25. Assessment

In a work first program, assessment serves to identify participants' employment skills and interests and their barriers to getting a job. In keeping with the program's goals, this is a narrow function, not meant to discover or address all of a participant's personal and employment issues. Some programs conduct a formal assessment only with those participants whose initial job search is not successful. Others break the assessment into two stages: an initial assessment to identify immediate barriers to employment or participation in job search, and a more in-depth assessment for those who have been unable to find a job.

The Initial Assessment

The purpose of the initial assessment is to discover and address any immediate barriers to participation in job search, as well as to make sure that child care, transportation, and other supports are in place. Many programs hold meetings between participants and case managers or other staff immediately following the orientation to conduct the initial assessment. This helps to get participants started right away. The time between assessment and the first day of job search can then be used by participants to arrange for child care and take care of any other immediate legal, health, or other personal problems (see sections 35 and 36). The case manager should have some leeway in scheduling the beginning of job search to accommodate the resolution of these issues.

The initial assessment is also an opportunity to start participants thinking about their job search, and to identify job skills and interests. Simple questions can begin to get at this without in-depth testing or assessment. In this way, case managers can turn the assessment around, helping participants build on their strengths rather than simply identifying barriers. The initial assessment is also often the point at which case managers and participants begin to develop an employment plan (see section 32). If scheduling difficulties create a long delay before participants can begin group job search, you may want them to start looking for a job on their own. If so, the assessment should include job search tips that will point them in the right direction.

The In-Depth Assessment

A more in-depth assessment may be reserved only for those who have completed the job search component but were not successful in finding employment. Most participants will not make it to this point; instead, they will find work, become exempt, or be in conciliation or sanction status. The number of participants who need assistance beyond job search may be greater in areas with high unemployment or more disadvantaged caseloads.

The in-depth assessment may include investigation of the participant's skills, abilities, and interests, and barriers to success in the labor market. It may also include research into possible employment options that had not been explored in the previous job search. Even the in-depth assessment, however, should be limited to producing information that will be useful to both the participant and program staff in determining the next step within the scope of the program. Extensive formal testing may not be necessary or appropriate. For example, many staff report that detailed test data on participants' vocational interests do not provide them with information beyond what they know from talking with participants, and may be of little use in situations in which training and employment options are limited. Defining the scope and purpose of the assessment is especially important if it is done by an outside contractor, who may have different assessment goals from those of the work first program.

The outcome of the in-depth assessment should be a plan for the participant's next steps, whether renewed job search, work experience, education or training, counseling, or a combination of activities. Even at this stage, however, employment is still the short-term goal.

26. Job Club

Job search is the central activity of a work first program. While individual job search-in which participants are instructed to make job contacts on their own and to report regularly on their progress-is least expensive, structured group job search-commonly known as job club-appears to be more effective. Job clubs generally include three components: a classroom segment, a phone room, and active job search. A job club in which all three of these components are strong can make all the difference in the success of your program.

There is no fixed rule about how large job clubs should be or how long job search should last. However, some generalizations can be made. Skilled facilitators working with groups of approximately 20 participants seem to be able to balance individual attention for those who need it with positive group dynamics. Most job clubs last three to four weeks, with some lasting as long as 12 weeks (see Appendix A for limitations on job search under TANF)-although practitioners agree that after a certain point, if a participant has not found a job, additional job search is not likely to be fruitful. At that point, program administrators may wish to conduct an in-depth assessment (see section 25) to identify barriers and plan alternative employment strategies.

Ten Guidelines for Running Effective Job Clubs

It helps to have enough phones to accommodate not just those in group workshops, but all participants who might need to use them. Having additional phones where participants can retrieve messages can help those who have no phone at home or who would like a professional-sounding message to greet potential employers. Make sure that staff or participants do not answer those phones, and use recorded professional greetings that do not mention the welfare department.

The most important motivation in a job club can come from the participants themselves. Often by the third day or so, someone in the group has gotten a job interview. By the end of the first week, someone has gotten a job. As this happens, the mood of the group changes. Participants become more excited about finding a job and more optimistic about their opportunities. They also feel more pressure to succeed as more of their peers find jobs.

27. Job Development

Not all work first programs include job development, in which staff identify unsubsidized job openings for participants. However, many programs that use job development attribute to it much of their success in moving participants into employment. Those participants who have little work experience or who have been out of the job market for a long time may need help networking with employers and may need more personalized attention than they get in a job club. Job development may be especially critical in tight labor markets, to help program participants find and fill scarce job openings. This type of job development may not create new employment opportunities, but job developers who have built relationships with employers can give program participants first crack at available jobs.

Critics of job development argue that it detracts from the message that it is the participant's responsibility to find a job and makes the participant less committed to remaining in a job. They also argue that getting one job on her own gives a participant the skills and self-confidence that she needs to find another job if the first one is lost. Hiring specialized job developers can also increase a program's cost.

In the context of work first, job development can be most useful as an additional resource, rather than a substitute for job search by participants. The following are some of the ways in which job development can be incorporated into a work first program:

In this role, job developers often focus on large employers who regularly have entry-level job openings. These may include representatives of large service industries, such as hotel and restaurant chains, as well as manufacturing firms and other businesses. Some job developers try to target jobs that are high-wage or that offer opportunities for advancement. Some programs also hold job fairs to help connect participants with employers. Despite the possibility of employer recruitment, job developers should be sensitive to issues of stigma. Some employers may be deterred from hiring welfare recipients, and some participants may not want employers to know that they are on welfare.

28. The Role of Education

Many welfare-to-work programs use education as a means of getting people to the point where they can get a job that pays well enough for them to become self-sufficient. A work first approach instead suggests that it is best to get into the workforce-even in a lower-paying or part-time job-and work up from there. The effects of adult education on employment and earnings are complex and appear to be inconsistent. However, short-term education can be a useful activity for those who are unsuccessful in their initial job search. Program planners might also consider allowing opportunities for participants to combine part-time work with education, so that participants can improve their skills while they gain work experience. Note, however, that federal law places limits on the number of participants who can be in certain types of educational activities and on what types of educational activities can count toward participation requirements (see Appendix A for a listing of allowable activities).

The following guidelines can help programs tailor education to fit into the framework of a work first philosophy that emphasizes quick employment. In general, these guidelines require case managers to work closely with education providers-rather than just referring participants over-and to pay increased attention to the quality and appropriateness of the educational service, both for the participant and for the employment goal.

General Guidelines for Education Activities

Approaching Different Levels of Education

Adult basic education (ABE). Lack of basic skills (generally defined as reading and math skills below the eighth-grade level) does not automatically mean that a participant will not be able to find a job, and ABE may be inappropriate for many participants whose experiences in school have been negative. In addition, MDRC survey results suggest that many welfare recipients would prefer assistance that is directly linked to getting a job. However, for those who are interested in education or who are unsuccessful in their job search, ABE can improve job qualifications and skills as well as self-esteem and confidence. Furthermore, many basic education programs are increasing their focus on employment and adjusting their curricula to emphasize skills needed on the job. The Los Angeles program described above is one example. Setting standards for and closely monitoring progress can also help improve ABE outcomes.

High school equivalency (GED). For some people, a General Educational Development (GED) certificate-commonly referred to as a high school equivalency certificate-can increase access to jobs and training opportunities as well as self-esteem. Work first programs can encourage participants who are close to achieving a GED to do so, even in conjunction with employment. Completion time can be reduced by closely monitoring progress and emphasizing the link between completion and employment.

High school completion. Research shows that people with a high school diploma earn more than those with a GED certificate. Work first participants can take advantage of the adult high schools in many communities to obtain their diplomas. However, unlike a GED, high school completion requires not just passing a proficiency test, but completing the required number of credits. Therefore, high school completion should be considered only for those participants who are within a year or so of graduation.

College. Participants interested in higher education are generally a self-selected and highly motivated group. Work first case managers can help participants who are interested in attending college-and who have the prerequisite high school diploma or GED certificate-tailor postsecondary education to their employment goals. (Remember, too, that college attendance may not count toward meeting federal participation requirements.) Participants in Vermont's Welfare Restructuring Project who want to attend college are required to research their chosen field and convince program staff of their potential for employment in that field.

Most work first programs also emphasize short-term certificate programs rather than four-year degrees-but be advised that participants often end up in remedial courses, which can slow down completion of even short-term education. Some programs have worked with local community colleges to break courses down into shorter, more narrowly defined segments, so participants can begin by learning just what is needed to enter the job market and then continue their education to move ahead in their field. Finally, encourage participants in higher education to take advantage of academic and social supports available on campus.

English as a second language (ESL). ESL is often an automatic activity for participants who are not proficient in English, and participants often stay in ESL for extended periods. At the same time, ESL programs are scarce in many places; as a result, waiting lists and prolonged program deferrals are common. Stepping up monitoring and establishing standards for progress can keep ESL on track as a step toward employment. In addition, ESL programs themselves can become more employment-focused-for example, by emphasizing language skills needed on the job. ESL, however, does not need to be a prerequisite for job search, and, as with other education options, work first programs can encourage participants to combine ESL with part-time work. In Los Angeles, job clubs are conducted in Spanish, and occasionally in Armenian, Vietnamese, and Cambodian. Instructors report that those job clubs tend to have higher rates of employment than do the English-language job clubs.

29. The Role of Training

As with education, vocational training can be a part of a work first program and may enhance its success. There is some research evidence that some types of training can increase the earnings of participants, but the research also suggests that these impacts are concentrated among those who might have gotten jobs and left welfare anyway. That is, the training may have helped some participants get higher wages or more hours of work than they otherwise would have, rather than increasing the total number of participants who became employed. One reason for this may be that participants who choose training are highly motivated and likely to find jobs even without training. Another reason may be that enrollment in many training programs requires a high school diploma or other credentials. Proponents of training argue that by increasing earnings, training helps families not just to get off welfare, but to stay off.

The Center for Employment Training (CET) in San Jose, California, is one training program that has produced large impacts on employment and earnings, as well as welfare savings. CET does not require participants to have a high school diploma, and it serves both welfare recipients and those not on welfare. Many of the following ideas on how you can tailor training to a work first approach are drawn from the CET model. If there is a variety of training options in your community, you can give priority to those that include these characteristics. If local programs do not meet these criteria, you can encourage programs to adopt them by renegotiating contracts or using informal pressure. Note also that only training that is directly related to employment may count toward the federal participation rate requirements under TANF (see Appendix A).

Tailoring Training to a Work First Approach

30. Work Experience and Subsidized Employment

Work experience and subsidized employment can provide work opportunities for those participants who are not able to get unsubsidized jobs. In work experience, participants generally work for public and nonprofit employers in exchange for welfare benefits. Participants in subsidized employment generally work for private employers, and the employer is partially reimbursed from diverted welfare funds. Because they receive a paycheck, individuals in subsidized jobs are generally eligible for the Earned Income Credit (see section 39) and other benefits for low-income workers. There are also variations on these structures, discussed below.

Work first administrators may consider large-scale work experience or subsidized employment programs as a means to meet federal work participation requirements (see Appendix A). Doing so can also satisfy public and political support for requiring recipients to work in exchange for their benefits. However, such large-scale programs may conflict with the goal of work first-that is, moving participants as quickly as possible into unsubsidized employment. Work experience and subsidized employment can be productive activities for participants whose lack of work history may have hindered success in job search. Used selectively and carefully designed, both approaches can teach participants basic work habits and give them skills and experience for their résumés. Ideally, these positions can lead to permanent, unsubsidized jobs. Both approaches may also count toward meeting the federal participation requirements.

Unpaid Work Experience

Unpaid work experience (also called community service employment or workfare) is usually structured so that participants work either a fixed number of hours per week or the number of hours equivalent to their grant divided by the minimum wage. Participants are not paid wages but may lose part of their welfare benefits if they fail to work the required hours.

Research on relatively small-scale workfare programs in the 1980s found that, by themselves, the programs did not increase either employment or earnings (although they did impose a mutual obligation, and participants generally performed work that had value to the community). Some argue that newer workfare models-which impose ongoing, full-time work requirements on a broader share of the caseload-will produce different results. However, large-scale work experience programs can be difficult to implement and expensive to administer (see section 21, on program costs).

Subsidized Employment and On-the-Job Training

Under work supplementation (also known as grant diversion), states use welfare grants as a source of wage subsidies for participants placed in jobs. Advocates of work supplementation believe that these subsidies act as an inducement for employers to hire participants, creating access to employment opportunities. On-the-job-training (OJT) operates similarly to work supplementation, but OJT is available to individuals who do or do not receive welfare and is funded through employment and training programs rather than diverted welfare grants. Evaluations of small-scale work supplementation programs in the 1980s found that they did not substantially increase the number of individuals who got jobs, but they did increase earnings-that is, they led to jobs that either paid higher wages or provided more hours than the jobs those individuals would have gotten in the absence of work supplementation. Moreover, the programs had these effects even after the individuals finished the subsidy period.

Like unpaid work experience, large-scale subsidized employment programs present major operational challenges. In addition, there is a danger that employers will simply receive a windfall for hiring someone they would have hired anyway. At the same time, there may be a stigma associated with subsidized employment. Employers may be reluctant to hire people on welfare, and participants may be reluctant to work in what they feel are not real jobs. Staff of Milwaukee's New Hope Project (described below) found a lower-than-expected takeup rate of paid community service jobs, and found they needed to spend more effort marketing those jobs to participants. Finally, past programs have found that the administrative hassles that work supplementation presents for employers limit its usefulness as a hiring incentive.

Other Approaches

Some programs have developed creative approaches that combine elements of unpaid work experience and subsidized employment. For example, Vermont has structured its post-time-limit community service employment so that participants receive paychecks (from a contracted payroll firm) rather than welfare checks, and are covered by worker compensation through the state. The New Hope Project in Milwaukee provides an income supplement (outside the welfare system) to low-wage workers and offers minimum-wage community service jobs with private and nonprofit employers to those who are unable to find unsubsidized employment. Because they receive wages, participants in both Vermont and New Hope are eligible for the Earned Income Credit. IndEx is a Tulsa, Oklahoma, program created by and administered through the Metropolitan Tulsa Chamber of Commerce. Welfare recipients are trained and work at IndEx's central facility, under contract with local private-sector industries, to produce goods that would otherwise have been produced offshore. Successful participants are hired for permanent positions with the private employers.

Guidelines for Work Experience and Subsidized Employment

The following are some ideas about how to make the most of work experience and subsidized employment as part of a work first program:

31. Retention and Reemployment

Many people will leave welfare for work, but many of those will lose their jobs and return to welfare. Interviews with participants in Project Match found that nearly 60 percent lost their jobs within six months, and no single factor explained the bulk of job loss. Program administrators, staff, and participants should have realistic expectations about job loss, so that they see such experiences as part of a process of securing lasting employment, rather than as failures. Several programs are also adding services to their program mix that aim to increase retention and help participants get new jobs quickly if their first ones do not work out.

The decision to spend resources on retention and reemployment services may mean that fewer resources are available for helping new participants find jobs. However, a focus on retention and reemployment may become even more important in the context of time limits (see section 40), which will affect not just long-term welfare recipients but also those who cycle on and off welfare.

Retention and Reemployment Issues

A study of post-employment services in four sites found that participants faced four main challenges as they began work:

This section offers strategies for addressing retention and reemployment in work first programs. Opinions are mixed as to the usefulness of these strategies. For example, staff at Project Match have not found it useful to focus on teaching participants how to keep a job before they have found one. They recommend focusing instead on quick reemployment if (as is often the case) a job does not last. Project Match has developed a dynamic welfare-to-work model that expects participants to move through several different jobs and services before succeeding in long-term employment. Administrators in other programs, however, believe that the chances of job retention can be improved by preparing participants for some of the issues they will confront on the job and by teaching job-keeping strategies.

Research is only beginning to look at the effectiveness of retention strategies, so the added benefit is not yet clear. Results of the Post-Employment Services Demonstration (PESD) may shed light on the effectiveness of these strategies. The demonstration sites provided retention, reemployment, and extended case management services to JOBS participants who obtained employment. Specific services included: counseling and moral support; help with expenses; help accessing benefits; and job search and development assistance for reemployment.

Five Points at Which Retention Can Be Addressed