Phoenix, Arizona, the sixth largest city in the country and second largest of the study sites, recently experienced a dramatic increase in population. With roughly 2.7 million people living in the metropolitan area, Maricopa County is one of the fastest growing regions in the nation. The sunny climate and steady economic growth has contributed to the influx of people moving to the area. Compared to the other urban study sites, Phoenix has one of the lowest proportion of families that are female headed (11.8 percent) and the lowest percentage of families who live in poverty (10.5 percent).
Located within a right to work state, the city of Phoenix is able to attract major businesses to the area such as Motorola, Honeywell, and Allied Signal. In addition, companies such as American Express, Bank of America, and Charles Schwab among others have built their regional and national headquarters within the area. The presence of these major corporations creates ripe employment opportunities for the citizens of Phoenix. The region's low unemployment rate (2.9 percent) and relatively small percentage of families receiving cash assistance is some indication of the strong economic base.
As one of the state's oldest counties, Yavapai County was one of four of the original counties in Arizona prior to statehood. This rural community has a rich Native American history where those from the Apache, Navajo, and other tribes inhabited the land long before the westward expansion. An area which once extended 65,000 square miles now covers about 8,125 square miles, though smaller now than when originally settled, the County of Yavapai is still as large as the state of New Jersey.
With almost 150,000 residents living within the area, Yavapai County has the lowest proportion of female-headed families (7.0 percent) and percentage of households who live below poverty (9.8 percent) among the rural sites. In addition, the area's low unemployment rate, which is 4 percent, is some indication that this rural community has a strong economic base. As one of the top 5 retirement communities in the nation and an area that draws many outdoors enthusiasts, Yavapai County offers a substantial number of employment opportunities for those looking for work, particularly for a rural area. However, transportation is a significant issue. The county covers a large geographic area. Many of the job opportunities are in the small towns in the county while many of the county residents live in the outlying areas.
Located near the center of the state of Arkansas, Little Rock is the largest city within Pulaski County and the state capitol of Arkansas. With 175,752 living within the area, Little Rock has the second fewest number of citizens of the urban sites. The percentage of families who live below poverty (10.8 percent) and the proportion of female-headed families (14.5 percent) are relatively low compared to other sites that have similar concentrations of minority populations. Little Rock has one of the highest rates of high school completion (82 percent) and one of the lowest TANF caseloads (2,168) among the urban sites. In addition to the existence of a major military base, the city of Little Rock is the headquarters for the state's financial industry which includes a large number of banks, investment firms, and insurance companies as well as 28 Fortune 500 companies all of which contributes to the low unemployment rate (3.6 percent) and relatively low TANF population.
Jefferson County, Arkansas is a southern rural community. Most of the County's population (60,000 of 82,259 residents) live in the town of Pine Bluff. Almost half (46.0 percent) of the residents living in Jefferson County are African American. The poverty rate is high in the area as approximately one-fifth of the households have incomes which are less than the federal poverty level.
There are a large number of businesses in the area; however, most of the jobs are labor and blue-collar positions which pay around minimum wage. The overall County unemployment rate of 7.8 percent is twice that of Little Rock, the urban counterpart for this study.
Even though the unemployment rate is higher than the national average, the TANF caseload has taken a sharp decline since the implementation of welfare reform dropping from 956 time-limited cases in July 1997 to 329 in June 1999, which represents a 66 percent decrease in the number of families on cash assistance. The challenges that are unique to Jefferson County include the highest teen pregnancy rate in the nation and a TANF population where about three-fourths of the clients read at the 8th grade level or below.
In general, San Diego is a relatively conservative community with a strong bias toward downsizing government and privatizing welfare services. With more than 2.7 million people living in the area and 38,000 families on cash assistance, San Diego County has the largest general population and TANF population of all the sites. According to Census Bureau statistics, about one-third of the population are from minority groups, although, this figure underestimates the number of people who are from minority populations as it does not include the large number of refugees and undocumented workers in the area.
The tourist industry in San Diego County keeps the unemployment rate relatively low at 3.7 percent. Most of the businesses in the area, about 90 percent, have less than 10 employees, which contributes to a large number of uninsured families as small businesses typically cannot afford to pay the cost of health insurance for their workers. Although, high technology and medical technology industries have recently expanded and are seen as major areas of potential economic growth.
Just north of San Francisco, Napa County draws people from all over the country to explore the scenic vineyards and sample the local wines as Napa Valley has become recognized as one of the premier wine-making regions of the world. The economy of Napa depends largely on the wineries and tourists who frequent the area, which makes employment seasonal but wages much higher than minimum wage. In the past, Napa was considered an exporter of labor in that people lived in Napa and worked outside of the area. Recently that trend is shifting as more jobs are available in town due to businesses such as Apple Computer Worldwide Data Center, Dey Labs, and other industrial corporations.
As a result of the high wages and relatively low unemployment, less than 5 percent of the families in Napa live below the poverty level. Even though the poverty rate is relatively low, the lack of housing in the area is a substantial challenge for many low-income families since the vacancy rate is less than one percent.
The city of Hartford has the smallest city population of all the sites (133,086), but one of the larger County populations (825,141). Though their population within the city is relatively small, the challenges facing the community are fairly substantial. Of all the urban sites, Hartford has the highest percentage of female-headed households (27.6 percent), proportion of families below poverty (25.7 percent), and concentration of minority populations (60.0 percent).
Part of the instability in the economic base of Hartford is due to a statewide recession from 1989 to 1992, which resulted in a loss of 158,000 jobs. By June 1998, 80 percent of jobs that were lost had been recovered, but the structure of the labor market had shifted from manufacturing to service sector employment, which pay between 30 to 50 percent less than manufacturing positions. The relatively high unemployment rate in Hartford (7.5 percent) is some indication that the area has not fully recovered from the economic downturn.
At the mouth of Thames River and near the eastern end of Connecticut's Long Island shoreline, sits New London County. With a population of 252,958 and a welfare population of 2,400, New London has the largest general population and highest number of families receiving cash assistance among the rural sites. Most of the citizens living in New London are caucasion, however, recently there has been a large influx of immigrants from a variety of Asian and African countries.
New London is one of the few sites where the unemployment rate in the rural area which is 5.3 percent is less than the unemployment rate in the urban site as the percentage of unemployed is around 7.5 percent in Hartford. Most of the jobs are in the tourist industry, particularly during the summer months, and in manufacturing. The recent opening of several large casinos in the area has also increased the number of jobs available for unskilled workers.
Jacksonville, Florida, one of the nation's largest cities in terms of square miles, has a little over 700,000 people living within the area. About a quarter of the population is African American, and a small Hispanic community accounts for just three percent of the population. Those living in Jacksonville are more educated than most; almost 77 percent of the population has graduated from high school.
For purposes of providing TANF employment services, Jacksonville is part of a six county area that is served by the First Coast Workforce Development Board. Over 16,000 employers, primarily in the health, service and hospitality, financial, aviation, and construction industries are within this region. Jacksonville, the largest city in the First Coast Region, has a poverty rate in the single digits (9.8 percent) and an unemployment rate of 3.3 percent, lower than the national average.
Well known for it's famous tune, "Suwannee River", Suwannee County is one of the largest geographic areas in Florida — the region is characterized as very rural with a longstanding agricultural tradition. Suwannee County is one of the smallest rural study sites, with just over 33,000 people living in the area. Suwannee County is average among the study sites with regard to the percentage of female-headed households (11.3 percent) and poverty rate (15.1 percent), although there is a slightly larger minority population (18.6 percent) in Suwannee County and a fewer number of individuals who completed high school (63.8 percent) compared to the other rural sites.
While jobs are available in the area, on average, they pay only slightly above minimum wage, ranging between $6.25 and $6.50 per hour. The main industries in the region include service sector, nursing homes, agriculture, state government, and the state prisons.
Like Jacksonville, the urban site from Florida included in this study, Suwannee County's TANF caseloads have declined, although, not as drastic a drop as in Jacksonville. The number of families receiving cash assistance fell from 615 families in September 1996 to 234 families in July 1999, which represents a 62 percent caseload deduction. Key challenges facing the welfare community include the lack of public transportation, night and weekend child care, the increasing student drop-out rate, low-skilled residents, affordable housing, and a lack of business base.
St. Paul (Ramsey County), known for it's friendly people and family-style community, has been voted the most livable city, best place to do business, best place for working women, and best place to raise a family among other distinctions. As one of the smaller urban sites, the population of St. Paul is about 259,606.
St. Paul has a very large immigrant population from a range of ethnic groups including Hmong, Lao, Vietnamese, and other Asian immigrants, as well as Somalis from East Africa. The language and cultural differences unique to these immigrant populations pose challenges for the service delivery and employability of these groups.
The local economy of St. Paul is strong with an unemployment rate of 2.5 percent and a number of large corporations such as 3M, Ecolab and Minnesota Life among others doing business in the area. Most of the jobs focus on manufacturing, service and high technology. In addition to a range of employment options, Ramsey County is filled with educational opportunities. With a number of technical colleges, two public universities, and five private liberal arts colleges, St. Paul has more institutions of higher learning than any city west of Boston.
Minnesota's basic philosophy guiding its welfare programs, which is to help people leave poverty, not simply to reduce welfare rolls has contributed to only a small decline in the number of families receiving TANF, but higher wages for those who do leave cash assistance (average of $7.77 per hour).
Olmsted County, a small town surrounded by acres of rich farmland, has approximately 114,619 people living within the area. Most of the citizens living within Olmsted County are caucasian, although, there has been a recent influx of immigrants to the area, particularly from Somali. In Olmsted County, less than 5 percent of the families live below poverty and 88 percent have completed high school. They also have the lowest unemployment rate of any of the rural sites at 2.9 percent. The County's two major employers, IBM and the Mayo Clinic, contribute to the low unemployment and poverty rates in the area which are 2.9 and 4.5 percent, respectively.
Omaha, located in Douglas County on the western bank of the Missouri River, is the largest city in Nebraska, with a population of about 358,000, almost double that of Lincoln, the state's next largest city, and about one-quarter of the entire population of Nebraska. Omaha has the most ethnically diverse citizen population in the state, with a relatively large African American community (12 percent).
Unemployment is very low in Omaha, estimated at about 2.7 percent. However, the neighborhoods in which many welfare recipients live, like many central cities, have much higher-than-average unemployment rates. Omaha also has a larger percentage of families living in poverty, as well as a larger percentage of female-headed households than many communities in the state.
Service and retail jobs are most common in Omaha, with nearly three-fifths of area jobs in these sectors. Telemarketing is a major industry in Omaha and a major employer for people leaving welfare assistance for work. The telemarketing firms generally pay higher than minimum wage, but these jobs are temporary and usually do not offer benefits such as health insurance, sick leave, and retirement plans.
Omaha serves the highest number of AFDC/TANF families in the state, with over two-fifths of the state's caseload. In all, in April 1999, there were about 5,100 families on cash assistance in the county, with about 3,500 required to participate in employment activities.
Scotts Bluff County, in Nebraska's western panhandle, includes nine small, rural communities bordering Colorado and Wyoming. Approximately 36,000 people reside in the county, with most of the residents in the towns of Scottsbluff and Gering.
Sugar beet factories and other agricultural companies employ most of the local residents in Scotts Bluff County. Outside the farming community, the work is mostly in industry, the service sector, and tourism. The reported unemployment rate of 4.6 percent is nearly double that of the rest of the state, but lower than most the rural sites. Underemployment is also common, and starting wages are generally lower than in other parts of the state. Exacerbating these factors, welfare staff in Scottsbluff report a strong bias among local employers against hiring welfare recipients.
Over one-fifth of the children in Scottsbluff live in poverty and about 550 families qualify for financial assistance, about one-quarter of whom are two-parent families. From May through July, during the sugar beet harvest, there is an influx of Hispanic migrant workers to the area, which adds about 100 families to the caseload.
Cleveland, Ohio's largest metropolitan area has around 498,246 people living within the city and almost triple that, 1.4 million, in the broader Cuyahoga County. Cleveland is more ethnically diverse compared to most the sites with almost half of the families African American a smaller group that are the Hispanic population (4 percent). In addition, there is a large percentage of families that are female-headed and/or live in poverty as more than one-fifth of the families are female-headed, and about one-quarter have incomes below the federal poverty line. Along with the high rates of poverty in the region, there are fewer parents who have completed their high school education, around 60 percent of Cleveland's residents have a high school degree which is much lower than Ohio as a whole (83.4 percent).
Among the sites, Cleveland has the second highest TANF caseload with approximately 33,000 families receiving cash assistance which represents about one-fourth of Ohio's total welfare caseload. One factor contributing to the high TANF caseload is the lack of employment opportunities within the area. The unemployment rate of Cleveland is the highest of all the urban sites at 8.4 percent, which is double the national average.
Columbiana County, a wooded area with roiling hills and pockets of small rural communities, has 111,853 people living within a broad geographic region. Recognized as one of the oldest regions to be settled in the state, Columbiana has a rich historical tradition as famous events such as George Washington's exploration of Columbiana County as the starting point for the Northwest Territory and Susan B. Anthony chairing the first women's suffrage convention took place within the area.
Most of the residents living within the County are white (98.2 percent), and almost three quarter (71.8 percent) have a high school degree. The local economy is still recovering from the steel mill closings during the 1980's, as the number and types of jobs available in the area are limited to the county and local school systems and the service industry.
Situated in the Southern part of the state, 80 miles west of Houston and 120 miles northwest of Corpus Christy, lies San Antonio, Texas. As the 10th largest city in the nation, roughly 1 million people live in San Antonio's sprawling community which is primarily known for the famous "Alamo" military post and historic Spanish Colonial missions.
The city is described as a bicultural community as most of the area is inhabited by persons from Mexican descent. The Hispanic community has a strong presence in San Antonio, including a number of undocumented workers in the area; more than half of the population is Hispanic. In addition, because the racial and ethnic communities typically settle in one geographic area, in some locations as many as 90 percent of the population are Hispanic.
The unemployment rate is around 4 percent, which is less than the national average. However, most jobs hover around minimum wage and few offer benefits such as health insurance, sick leave, and retirement. The city has a few major employers like Diamond Shamrock, Southwestern Bell, Tyson Foods, and Kelly Air Force Base, but tourism is the primary source of jobs in the area. The high poverty rate (18 percent) in San Antonio has been declared by the Mayor as the number one concern in the area.
Uvalde, a small rural town in southern Texas, was organized in 1953 and reorganized in 1956 by Juan de Uvalde, a famous Indian fighter. Located in the center of 10 other counties, there are 147,000 people located within the area's 15,000 square miles, making it one of the largest geographic areas among the sites. According to Census Bureau reports, most of the people living in Uvalde are Caucasian; however, many families living in Uvalde are Hispanic immigrants or undocumented workers which are not included in the census data. As a result, the number of people from the Hispanic community are underestimated by government reports.
The unemployment rate in Uvalde is typically in the low teens, although, some of the surrounding communities report unemployment rates as high as 25 percent. There is a great deal of seasonal fluctuation in the unemployment rate as there are a high number of migrant workers in the area. Like San Antonio, the jobs in Uvalde are typically low-wage positions contributing to a high poverty rate among working families. Agriculture is one of the main industries in Uvalde, however, trade has recently increased as a result of the free trade agreement with Mexico, as there is a considerable demand for truck drivers to transport products into the United States.
Richmond, the capitol of Virginia, has just under 200,000 people living in the central city and a TANF population of 4,500 families. The majority of families living within Richmond are African American (55.2 percent), with higher than average rates of female-headed households (19.8 percent) and families living below poverty (17.4 percent). Approximately, 56 percent of the working poor earn less than $10,000 per year. Within the city's poorer neighborhoods 33 percent of the residents depend on public assistance.
Richmond has a very small employer-base, particularly in the poorer neighborhoods. Food service, banking and finance, retail, and health care serving as the areas main industry sectors. Most of the area's main employers, including Phillip Morris, Virginia Power, Crestar Bank, Capital One, Burlington, and Motorola, reside outside of the city center.
Wise County, located in the coal fields region of western Virginia, comprises a mix of small towns and rural areas. Its population of 39,925 lives in the hills and within and outside its many small towns. An isolated area, there is little opportunity for tourism as well as poor access to road transport. Historically, coal alone supported the county until technological advances in mining emerged in the late 1980's and early 1990's. Now that the same amount of coal can be mined with far fewer workers, there are very few mining jobs left, and no new industries have emerged to employ the displaced coal labor force. Just under 18 percent of employees in Wise County still work in coal mining.
While most of Virginia and the rest of the country have been experiencing an economic boom and record low unemployment rates, Wise County has seen its unemployment rate rise to 17 percent. The largest single employer in Wise is a lumber manufacturer, which employs just 281 people. With 18.8 percent of its citizens in poverty, Wise has a poverty rate that is more than twice the statewide rate. The rate of high school completion in Wise is significantly lower than the statewide rate and most of the sites, as only about half of the population has graduated from high school. Most new employment is in low-paying service industry jobs — fast food, discount retail, and nursing homes; secretarial and receptionist jobs also account for new employment. Two new prisons opened in recent years bringing some additional jobs to the area.
Top of Page
Contents of This Section
Table of Contents of Report
Executive Summary
Introduction
Defining the Roles and Responsibilities of
Intermediaries
Implementation of the “Intermediary”
Function
Lessons Learned and Next Steps
Appendix A: Site Descriptions
Appendix B: Examples of Organizations Functioning
as Intermediaries
Appendix C: Number of Intermediaries by Type of
Organization
Home Pages:
Human Services Policy
(HSP)
Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation
(ASPE)
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS)
Last updated 06/01/00